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Universidad Virtual 
Escuela de Graduados en Educación 
 
Exploring the Language Learning Strategies Most Frequently 
Used by Academically Successful University Students of English as 
a Foreign Language: The Case of Tecnológico De Monterrey 
 
Tesis que para obtener el grado de: 
Doctor en Innovación Educativa 
presenta: 
Martha Catalina del Ángel Castillo 
Asesor: 
Dra. Katherina Edith Gallardo Córdova 
 
 
Monterrey, Nuevo León, México. Octubre, 2009 
 
ii 
 
Hoja de firmas electrónicas 
 
Esta disertación fue aprobada por unanimidad el día 10 de noviembre de 2009 como 
consta en el acta firmada por el siguiente comité: 
 
Dra. Katherina Edith Gallardo Córdova 
Asesora principal 
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey 
Universidad Virtual 
kgallar@itesm.mx 
 
Dr. Eduardo Flores Kastanis 
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey 
Campus Chihuahua 
efloresk@itesm.mx 
 
Dr. Armando Lozano Rodríguez 
Instituto Tecnológico y de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey 
Universidad Virtual 
armando.lozano@itesm.mx 
 
 
 
 
 
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Dedication 
I am honored to dedicate this doctoral dissertation to: 
God, who has always put the right people in my way to help me overcome my personal 
and professional weaknesses. 
My loving husband, René Villarreal, who has supported me unconditionally in every 
dream I have decided to pursue. 
My dear children, Renecito, who has always shown admiration for my work and given 
me words of encouragement, and Veli, whose innocence and restlessness have 
brightened my heart with happiness. 
My parents, Genaro del Angel and Nidia Castillo, who have provided me the tools to 
face different life situations. 
My brother and sisters, each of whom has taught me a lesson through their lives: 
Genaro- to change what can be changed. 
Patricia- to be responsible from an early age. 
Beatriz-to get over disappointments. 
Brenda Yaneth- to say what nobody dares to say. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Acknowledgments 
I gratefully acknowledge all of the wonderful help and support provided by the following 
people: 
Tecnológico de Monterrey administrators, for providing the academic context and 
resources in carrying out this dissertation in order to obtain my doctoral degree. 
Ruth Ángel, for having helped me through my professional development. 
Dr. Celia Ann Durboraw, for all her support towards my studies because she says: “I´ve 
been there”. 
Dr. Moisés Torres, for helping me structure ideas into defined projects and his 
commitment in supervising every step of the process and guiding me when 
learning turned fuzzy. 
Dr. Katherina Gallardo, for having accepted to guide me through my dissertation to its 
completion and her excellent advice in having me identify all the possible 
ramifications of this work. 
Dr. Armando Lozano, for dotting all the i’s and crossing all the “t’s” of this research 
project. 
Dr. Eduardo Flores, for being so assertive and direct with his comments. 
Dr. Olivia Carrillo, for having helped me design the Questionnaire. 
Jesús López, for having checked every single statistical datum. 
All my professors, since kindergarten, for having me enjoy the learning experience. 
My friends, for asking God to guide me and make me strong all the way through. 
English teachers of the Modern Language Department, for having given me some of 
their precious class time for data collection. 
Scholarship-holders and administrative assistants, for having uploaded lots of data. 
My co-workers, for every piece of advice they gave me when I needed it the most. 
For all the participants of the study, for having shared their information and 
experiences. This research would not have been possible without their 
contribution. 
 
 
v 
 
Abstract 
English language teaching and learning has been the concern of universities because 
students should be able to use the language both in informal and academic settings in 
order to become competitive in their professional field. The main objective of this 
dissertation is to explore the language learning strategies most frequently used by 
academically successful students in higher education. As language learning strategies is 
a field that needs to be deeply explored, Mixed Method Design was selected. This study 
was performed in three phases: (i) The quantitative phase describes the results found 
after analyzing a population formed by 1,283 higher education students registered in the 
January-May 2009 period. A general questionnaire and The Strategy Inventory for 
Language Learning designed by Oxford (1990) were applied. (ii) The qualitative phase 
describes how a sample was selected as a result of phase I and how the interviews were 
held with selected participants. (iii) The interpretation phase combines the previous 
stages in order to get integrated results from phases I and II. The results revealed that 
academically successful students use Metacognitive Strategies more frequently. They 
share their problems with their parents, participate in extra-curricular activities, find 
ways to solve difficulties on their own, propose themselves as leaders for assignments 
or teamwork, do some self-study, ask for help to overcome limitations, do their 
assignments completely and on time. Thus, this study demonstrated that language 
learning strategies along with other personal and family complements lead students to 
reach academic success. 
 
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Table of Contents 
Chapter 1: Nature of the Study 
1.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1 
1.2. Background and Statement of the Problem ............................................................. 4 
1.3. Purpose of the Study .............................................................................................. 7 
1.4. Specific Objectives ................................................................................................ 7 
1.5. Research Questions ................................................................................................ 8 
1.6. Justification of the Study ........................................................................................ 8 
1.7. Context of the Study .............................................................................................. 9 
1.8. Scope of the Study ................................................................................................11 
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature 
2. 1. Historical Overview of Bilingualism ....................................................................13 
2.1.1. The Origins of Bilingual Education .............................................................14 
2.1.2. Teaching and Learning Methods .................................................................17 
2.1.3. Language Learning Theories and Models ....................................................20 
2.2. Language Learning Outcomes ...............................................................................26 
2.2.1. Levels of Proficiency ...................................................................................30 
2.2.2. Learning Strategies .....................................................................................36 
2.2.3. Academic Success .......................................................................................40 
2.3. Second Language Research ...................................................................................45 
2.3.1. Learning English in Mexico ........................................................................48 
2.3.2. Learning English in a University Setting .....................................................51 
2.3.3. English Teaching and Learning at Tecnológico de Monterrey .....................55 
Chapter 3: Research Designand Methods 
3.1. Mixed Methods Research ......................................................................................60 
3.1.1. Phase I: The Quantitative Stage ..................................................................70 
3.1.1.1. The Sample Selected .......................................................................71 
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3.1.1.2. Data Collection Instruments and Procedures ....................................74 
3.1.1.3. Quantitative Data Analysis ..............................................................88 
3.1.2. Phase II: The Qualitative Stage ...................................................................94 
3.1.2.1. The Sample Selected .......................................................................96 
3.1.2.2. Data Collection Instruments and Procedures ....................................97 
3.1.2.3. Qualitative Data Analysis ................................................................99 
Chapter 4: Results 
4.1. Phase III: The Interpretation Stage ...................................................................... 102 
4.2. Sample Characteristics ........................................................................................ 106 
4.3. Findings reported by Research Questions ............................................................ 114 
4.4. Findings from the Semi-structured, In Depth Interviews...................................... 126 
4.5. Interpretation of the Entire Analysis .................................................................... 132 
Chapter 5: Discussion 
5.1. Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 135 
5.2. Recommendations for Practice ............................................................................ 142 
5.3. Implications for Future Research......................................................................... 143 
Appendixes 
A. The Mixed-Methods Approach ............................................................................. 145 
B. The Pilot Study ..................................................................................................... 148 
C. Letters of Consent for Data Collection: 
The Modern Language Department and Participants.............................................. 162 
D. Letter of Consent to use the SILL and adapt the Questionnaire .............................. 173 
E. Instrument 1: SILL original version taken from Oxford, R. L. (1990). 
Language Learning Strategies. What Every Teacher Should Know. 
U.S.A.: Newbury House Publishers ....................................................................... 174 
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F. Instrument 1: General Instructions to Administrators of the SILL .......................... 178 
G. Instrument 1: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning. The translated version: 
Inventario de Estrategias para el Aprendizaje de Idiomas ...................................... 180 
H. Instrument 2: Background Questionnaire. The original version ............................. 185 
I. Instrument 2: Background Questionnaire. The translated and adapted version: 
Cuestionario de Antecedentes ............................................................................... 186 
J. General Instructions for Proctors of Instruments 1 and 2: 
Instrucciones para Aplicadores de los Instrumentos 1 y 2. ..................................... 187 
K. Instrument 3: Guide to Indicators for Semi-Structured, in Depth interviews .......... 188 
L. Microsoft Access Tool for Quantitative Data Collection ........................................ 189 
M. Instruments 1 and 2: The general Questionnaire and the SILL 
results reported by one participant ......................................................................... 190 
N. Results of Instrument 1: Analysis of each SILL question used by Successful and 
Unsuccessful students ........................................................................................... 192 
O. Results of Instrument 2: Analysis of each General Questionnaire question used by 
Successful and Unsuccessful students through contingency tables ......................... 204 
P. Results of Instrument 3: Transcriptions of Interviews ............................................ 222 
Q. Photographs from Participants of the Study ........................................................... 332 
References ................................................................................................................. 333 
Curriculum Vitae ....................................................................................................... 344 
 
 
 
 
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Index of Tables 
1. Types of Designs by Four Criteria (Creswell, et al 2003, p.224) ...............................62 
2. Language Program offered by the Modern Language Department in accordance with 
TOEFL scores .........................................................................................................72 
3. Integration of the Learning Strategy System.............................................................80 
4. The use of three instruments to identify the relation between Language Learning 
Strategies and Academic Success .......................................................................... 104 
5. Gender Contingency Table..................................................................................... 107 
6. Successful (S) and Unsuccessful (S´) students of the sample .................................. 109 
7. Courses and number of students registered in the Language Program offered by the 
Modern Language Department. ............................................................................. 113 
8. Pearson´s Correlation between Strategies ............................................................... 119 
9. Top Ten Strategies ................................................................................................. 124 
B1. Pilot´s Group Professional Careers ...................................................................... 149 
B2. Strategies with the same Average ........................................................................ 154 
N1. Each SILL question considering the p-value........................................................ 197 
N2. MANOVA for General Linear Model: A, B, C, D, E, F 
versus General Average ...................................................................................... 201 
N3. Bottom Ten Strategies ......................................................................................... 203 
O1. Question 12 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 205 
O2. Question 13 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 207 
O3. Question 14 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 209 
O4. Question 15 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 211 
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O5. Question 16 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 213 
O6. Question 17 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 215 
O7. Question 18 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 217 
O8. Question 19 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 219 
O9. Question 20 Contingency Table .......................................................................... 221 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Index of Figures 
1. Timeline for Bilingual Education, Methods, and Models ..........................................25 
2. The Dual Threshold Model (Cummins & Swan, 1986, p. 18) ...................................28 
3. Theoretical Framework Map ....................................................................................594. Sequential Designs: Explanatory, Exploratory and Transformative 
(Creswell, et al 2003, p. 225) ...................................................................................64 
5. Sequential, Explanatory Study Design and Analysis Approach 
(McKenzie 2009, p. 43) ...........................................................................................67 
6. The Three-Phase Model followed in this study (based on McKenzie, 2009). ............69 
7. Information in Contingency Tables ..........................................................................92 
8. Distribution of Students per English Level ............................................................. 111 
9. Average of SILL Frequency Use ............................................................................ 115 
10. Simultaneous Confidence Intervals ...................................................................... 117 
B1. The Strategy Frequency Use of the Pilot Group ................................................... 152 
B2. Strategies used by Average A students ................................................................ 156 
B3. Strategies used by Average B students................................................................. 158 
B4. Strategies used by Average C students................................................................. 160 
N1. Average Frequency Use by each SILL Question ................................................. 193 
N2. Strategy Use differences between S and S´ students ............................................ 195 
N3. Average Frequency Use of Strategies by S and S´ students .................................. 199 
 
 
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List of Abbreviations 
ALIGU American Language Institute Georgetown University 
ALM Audio Lingual Method 
APEC Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation 
ASFM American School Foundation of Monterrey 
ASTP Army Specialized Training Program 
BICS Basic Communicative Fluency 
CALP Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency 
CONACYT National Council of Science and Technology (from its initials in 
Spanish) 
DF Degrees of Freedom 
DF Num Degrees of Freedom Numerator 
DF Denom Degrees of Freedom Denominator 
DIFF Differences 
EFL English as a Foreign Language 
ESL English as a Second Language 
ESP English for Specific Purposes 
GTM Grammar Translation Method 
GQ General Questionnaire 
INEGI National Institute of Statistics and Geography (from its initials in 
Spanish). 
ITESM Tecnológico de Monterrey (from its initials in Spanish). 
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L1 Mother Tongue or Native Language 
L2 Second or Target Language 
L3 Third Language 
MLA Modern Language Association 
REAP Reading English for Academic Purposes 
S Successful Students 
S’ Unsuccessful Students 
SACS Southern Association of College & Schools 
SAT Speech Accommodation Theory 
SILL Strategy Inventory for Language Learning 
SL Second Language 
TL Target Language 
WTO World Trade Organization 
TOEFL Test of English as Foreign Language 
TPR Total Physical Response Method 
 
 
 
 
 
1 
 
Chapter 1: Nature of the Study 
“Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each 
other." Holy Bible: Genesis 11:7 
1.1. Introduction 
The confusion of languages that took place in the Tower of Babble gave us an 
opportunity to separate from those who spoke a different language and get together with 
those who spoke “the same language”, in modern times; this expression means to 
comprehend or understand each other. At that time, this option seemed to be the right 
decision; but as time passed by, humans have come to the realization that sharing 
differences or “to speak other languages” is the key to understand and help one another. 
When being in contact with another language it was necessary to develop 
different strategies to learn that new language and also to be able to accept cultural 
differences. This is not an easy task but it did have some advantages: those who were able 
to speak another language besides their native tongue were considered to have more 
opportunities in different aspects of their lives. 
The researcher has a personal interest on investigating about the benefits that 
studying a foreign language might have on different areas of students’ life, especially on 
their academic success because in the early 80’s she started to learn English because 
everyone referred to it as the language of the future. When developing the English 
language some other activities were more easily done or understood; but still these 
advantages were not clearly defined. That is why the purpose of this investigation is to 
explore the strategies most frequently used by those students that have academic success 
in order to clarify what are the advantages when learning a new language. 
Success is generally related to money and or fame; but knowing a second 
language has also been related to success because you are able to travel, to see the reality 
through a different perspective and consequently to have access to other points of views 
in different disciplines. Thus, learning a second language may be related with success in 
several areas of one´s life. 
2 
 
Schools from kinder garden to university level generally have an English Program 
to help students achieve a certain level of bilingualism. Once students get a certain level 
of proficiency in the English language, they are likely to have more opportunities and 
advantages over monolingual students. The English language is in Mexico a way to have 
access to several opportunities such as educational and social among others. 
Nowadays, graduate students are expected to perform other abilities besides the 
one discipline they have selected as their specialty. One of the main abilities which 
facilitates the contact with new knowledge and technologies is that of mastering a foreign 
language; especially, the English language because Mexico constantly has economical, 
political and social relations not only with the United States for its close geographical 
location; but also with other English-speaking countries. In other words, when being in 
contact with a second language, students develop strategies that lead them to learn not 
only another language but also other disciplines. 
This research is organized into five chapters: Chapter one points out the general 
background in which this research took place, the statement of the problem is declared as 
well as the purpose of the study. Then, the general and specific objectives are established 
including the research questions, the justification as well as the scope of the study. 
Chapter two is divided into three sections which are subdivided into three sub-
topics; section 1 introduces a historical overview of Bilingualism considering its origins 
of Bilingual Education in the world and in the United States; then, there is a description 
of methods for teaching and learning that have been practiced to fulfill specific objectives 
of learners of a second language. Additionally, some theories like Weinreich’s (1966) and 
Koler’s (1963) are taken into account for defining the term bilingual as to their 
dependency of their native language and the language functions on the brain. Afterwards, 
some theoretical models like conditioning and habit formation are presented, first to show 
factors that influence language proficiency including social and individual differences 
and second to show the process of adaptation bilinguals have and the way this influences 
in their learning processes. 
3 
 
In the second section of Chapter two the outcomes of language learning are 
presented. At this point, not only are the levels and the terms associated with bilingualism 
presented, but also, the skills and characteristics that make an individual to fit a category 
or level of bilingualism. Then, the definition of strategies when developing a secondlanguage, in this case, English, are also described in detail. Academic Success is also 
regarded as an outcome for language learning because it fosters other skills like 
cognitive, metacognitive, meta-linguistic, to mention some. 
In the third section of Chapter two the works and research of experts on the field 
of Second Language Teaching and Learning are also summarized. The experience of 
Mexico including the social, political and economical factors to teach English in private 
and public schools at all educational levels is regarded as well as the experience of 
teaching and learning English in a university setting and finally, the experience of 
Tecnológico such as its requirement to achieve a certain level of English language 
proficiency in order to graduate. 
Chapter three explains the methodology followed to fulfill the objectives of this 
investigation. The selection of the method is explained and extensively supported as it is 
a mixture of both the Quantitative and Qualitative Methods, better known as Mixed-
Method Design. This stage is divided into three phases: The quantitative, followed by the 
qualitative concluding with the interpretation stage that combines the previous stages in 
order to show the final results in chapter four. In Phase 1, the population approached is 
described towards reaching a specific sample. Then, the data collection instruments are 
supported by theoretical frameworks and then the way in which the data are analyzed. In 
Phase two, the researcher presents how the qualitative sample was collected as well as the 
data collection instruments used for this study and in Phase 3 the researcher explains the 
way the data were analyzed. 
Chapter four presents the results, this stage, as it was previously stated is called 
the interpretation stage for it combines both the quantitative and qualitative data in order 
to answer the research questions and describe the sample characteristics finishing with an 
interpretation of the entire analysis. 
4 
 
Chapter five illustrates the discussion of the results found through the Mixed-
Methods Design. Conclusions are stated, limitations of the study, recommendations for 
practice as well as the possible implications for future research. 
1.2. Background and Statement of the Problem 
Tecnológico de Monterrey is a well-known university in Mexico that has a total of 
54,971 students enrolled in 33 Campuses in Mexico. Monterrey Campus offers 50 
professional careers and 31 international careers in the areas of administration and 
finance, health science, humanities, social sciences, engineering, architecture, 
information technologies and electronics (Tecnológico de Monterrey hacia el 2005). 
In 2003, Mexico is an active and constructive member of the World Trade 
Organization, WTO. It hosted the September 2003 WTO Ministerial Meeting in Cancun. 
The Mexican Government and many businesses support a Free Trade Area of the 
Americas (U.S Department of State). This same year ITESM established 550 TOEFL 
score as a graduation requirement because the use of English language is not only a 
competitive advantage but also is a requirement for those who want to have professional 
success (Guerra, 2008). Scoring 550 on the TOEFL, as it was established by ITESM 
would allow students to have access to foreign universities. 
All students are required to reach the graduation requirement regardless the 
discipline they are studying. A second language is now becoming a vital part of the basic 
preparation for an increased number of careers as it not only helps graduate students to 
find a job, but it also helps them to get promoted (Weatherford, 1986). Then, all students 
have to take English courses in order to reach a 550 TOEFL score. 
As students are required to achieve this goal, Tecnológico de Monterrey offers an 
English Language Program to provide students with the tools to reach the graduation 
requirement. However, there are a number of students who have finished their career but 
have not been able to graduate because they have not fulfilled the requirement. 
5 
 
There have been some studies to help students increase the level of proficiency in 
the English language. There is a general concern for the Institution that students not only 
get the 550 TOEFL score graduation requirement; but also that students are successful 
while studying their career. 
The Department of Modern language is currently going through an Alignment 
Process whose purpose is to incorporate TOEFL Preparation in all the English Courses 
offered by the Department; that is to say, from Remedial 1-5. This alignment process was 
done in two stages, first to define what topics the TOEFL evaluated and then the 
statistical results of students. Considering these data, this investigation designed some 
cognitive and metacognitive strategies to increase student’s TOEFL scores. Results have 
shown that there has been an increase on student’s TOEFL scores (Hernandez, 2007). 
From August 2007 on, some extra-tutoring on TOEFL Preparation was offered by 
Escolar with collaboration of the Modern Language Department who designed intensive 
TOEFL Preparation Courses for those students who would take the Institutional TOEFL 
in order to graduate that same semester. 
Considering the above, there is a general concern for students who have not 
achieved the graduation requirement. The question then lies on what academically 
successful students do in order to obtain high grades and achieving a 550 TOEFL score. 
Students who are learning a second language are also developing their cognition. 
Several authors agree that bilingual students possess cognitive flexibility (Baker, 1998; 
Díaz, 1985; in Chipongian, 2000; Latham, 1998; Cataldi, 1994 in Latham, 1998). Thus, 
bilingual students are more likely to be successful not only when learning a new 
language, but also on the learning of other subjects. 
Cummins and Swain (1986) presented The Dual Threshold Model which states 
that people that have minimal proficiency in any language might have an inadequate 
cognition whereas people who have average proficiency in one or more languages are 
average cognitively, then, those people who have a higher level of proficiency in two or 
more languages will achieve cognitive advantages. Considering this fact, students who 
6 
 
develop a higher level of proficiency in languages do have cognitive advantages and must 
also develop several strategies to reach their learning goals. Different types of strategies 
are directly involved in the learning process. Then, the strategies for learning became the 
concern for the purpose of this research. 
It becomes mandatory to make the distinction between acquiring and learning a 
language where the former occurs unconsciously and the latter occurs consciously. 
During the learning process students use learning strategies which enhance any part of the 
learning-acquisition continuum (Oxford, 1990). The first or mother language is acquired 
whereas the second or other languages are learned. 
Arellano (1999) used the instrument called Strategy Inventory for Language 
Learning (SILL for its initials) designed by Oxford to apply two of the learning strategies 
listed in this instrument: 1) use flashcards to remember new words and 2) Reading in 
English. The participants were first level English learners and the main objective was to 
prove the usefulness of these strategies (Oxford, 1990; Arellano, 1999). The results 
showed that the use of learning strategies helped students achieve a better performance in 
the English learning. 
In 2008, Sheorey made a research on Language Learning Beliefs and Learning 
Strategies of Mexican EFL Students concluding that even though students are motivated 
to learn English they believe that language learning is a question of memorization, 
including memorizing grammar rules also, “repeat and practice”. 
LearningStrategies are divided into two types: Direct because they directly 
involve the target language, require mental processing of the language. They include 
Memory, Cognitive, and Compensation Strategies and Indirect: because they support and 
manage language learning without directly involving the target language. Then, they tell 
us not only the strategies that students use in their language learning process, but also the 
strategies they use to learn any other areas of knowledge. This study will then present the 
relationship between the language learning strategies that are most frequently used by 
academically successful students. 
7 
 
1.3. Purpose of the Study 
Although the advantages of learning another language have been mentioned, none 
of the studies have brought up the relationship between learning strategies of Mexican 
EFL and their academic success. The purpose of this dissertation is then to identify the 
language learning strategies most frequently used by students who are academically 
successful and were registered in the English program offered during the January-May, 
2009 by the Modern Language Department of Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus 
Monterrey. 
The focus of this project is to identify the Language Learning Strategies used by 
academically successful students who are learning English through the English Language 
Program from basic to advanced Levels, such as public speaking, readings and videos and 
understanding cultures of the world. 
Academically successful students are defined by their high grades in the English 
language and other subjects. Through a general questionnaire the characteristics of 
academically successful students are identified considering their family relations, the 
awareness of local problems, their participation in extra-curricular activities, their 
independence to solve problems, their capacity for organization, their willingness for 
leadership, their responsibility to turn in the homework assignments on time and as 
required, their ecological practices, and their use of English in non-academic contexts. 
All of the above with the purpose of describing the characteristics of academically 
successful students and their language learning strategies frequency use. 
1.4. Specific Objectives 
In order to pursuit the goals mentioned above, this research project is designed to 
achieve the following specific objectives: 
a. To explore the English Language Learning Strategies most frequently 
used by Tecnológico de Monterrey Students. 
8 
 
b. To describe the main characteristics of academically successful students 
at Tecnológico de Monterrey. 
c. To identify the relation between English Language Learning Strategies 
and academic success for Tecnológico de Monterrey students. 
1.5. Research Questions 
The questions guiding this research focus on the language strategies most 
frequently used by academically successful students registered during the period of 
January-May 2009 at Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey. The following 
questions will guide the analysis: 
a. What are the Language Learning Strategies most frequently used by 
Tecnológico de Monterrey Students? 
b. What are the main characteristics of academically successful students at 
Tecnológico de Monterrey? 
c. What is the relation between English Language Learning Strategies and 
academic success for Tecnológico de Monterrey students? 
1.6. Justification of the Study 
The results of this investigation can be useful in various areas, for example, in 
course designs because of the material that should be included as part of the content to 
enhance language abilities; in the academic support for students that need extra tutoring, 
because students can reinforce the abilities they are missing; in the teaching training 
department to train teachers on the language learning development to help students 
become academically successful in English and other subjects. 
Knowing the characteristics of successful students will help parents and teachers 
reinforce these abilities, values and attitudes towards a better academic achievement and 
a better life quality. 
9 
 
The experiences narrated by academically successful students can have an impact 
on other students who are looking for academic improvement and can have access to a 
“student to student perspective” because sometimes this has been limited to parents and 
teachers. 
In terms of the institution, the theoretical framework and the results of this 
investigation, Tecnológico de Monterrey, can count on having a profile of academically 
successful students considering their strengths and weaknesses. In problem solving, this 
study can lead to have a wider knowledge of the students´ characteristics, behavioral 
patterns and find out what is missing. 
Students reflect success in several areas of their life. Academic Success is one of 
these areas that students are developing at this stage of their lives, while studying, they 
are developing general learning strategies and language learning strategies. It is important 
to reveal these findings among university students considering that students from other 
universities might have similar characteristics of those at Tecnológico de Monterrey. 
1.7. Context of the Study 
This study is conducted in Tecnológico de Monterrey, a multi-campus university 
system, which is a private, non-profit institution independent and not related to any 
political party or religious group. The Campus selected for the study was Campus 
Monterrey, in Monterrey, Nuevo Leon, Mexico. The Majors offered by this Campus are 
classified into Academic Areas that embrace common disciplines. During the Semester of 
January-May 2009, the following were the areas offered in Campus Monterrey: 
a. Agriculture and Food 
b. Architecture 
c. Social Science and Humanities 
d. Communication and Journalism 
e. Law 
f. Engineering and Science 
g. Business and Administration 
h. Health 
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i. Information Technologies and Electronics 
Tecnológico de Monterrey offers 23 international majors in the areas of 
administration and finance, health sciences, humanities and social sciences, engineering 
and architecture, information technologies and electronics. Therefore, students can 
register in either major depending on their professional expectations. Students are then 
asked to have a level of proficiency in the English Language which is measured by the 
TOEFL. 
In 2003 ITESM established 550 score in the Test of English as a Foreign 
Language. (TOEFL from its initials in English) as a graduation requirement because the 
use of English language is not only a competitive advantage but also is a requirement for 
those who want to have professional success (Guerra, 2008). Scoring 550 on the TOEFL, 
as it was established by ITESM would allow students to have access to foreign 
universities. The Monterrey Campus offers an English Program through the Modern 
language Department that includes from basic to advanced English Courses so that 
students can develop or reinforce their English language abilities. 
This is a descriptive sequential explanatory study design of 1,283 students 
registered in the Language Program offered by the Modern Language Department of 
Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey. 
The language program consists of five remedial courses, that is to say, Basic 
English courses: Remedial I-V; Academic English for Intermediates, and four Advanced 
courses: Academic English, Public Speaking, Readings and Videos and Understanding 
Cultures of the World. 
These are traditional courses which include the use of a technological platform 
called Blackboard which is used to post the course material, and to keep the teacher and 
students in contact during the course. Although students have this platform, their 
interaction is person to person and the classes are held 4.5 hours a week, having one dayoff. 
11 
 
The courses are taught by both native speakers of the English language and 
Mexican teachers that master the English Language. The number of students allowed in a 
classroom is 30, especially in a language class where students need to be monitored by 
the teacher. 
The textbooks for remedial courses are based on the communicative approach and 
the two academic courses follow a TOEFL preparation textbook, the advanced courses 
use varied bibliographical sources, including authentic material (texts for native speakers 
of English) in order to achieve the objectives of each course. The four skills required to 
master a language: Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing are practiced in all and 
each of the courses offered by the Modern Language Department. 
1.8. Scope of the Study 
The need for becoming bilingual is a general concern all over the world. 
However, this study takes as a reference the experience of the United States in this 
matter, as it shares some similarities that will be later discussed. Bilingualism is a 
phenomenon that has been related to schooling. In the United States there started a form 
of bilingual schooling that may have originated in Cincinnati in 1840 which was full of 
German immigrants. Later, the State of Ohio passed a law that made it ”the duty of the 
Board of Trustees and Visitors of common schools to provide a number of German 
schools under some qualified teachers to teach German and English together. Later, 
Cincinnati introduced German instruction in the grades as an optional subject and that is 
when bilingual education started (Anderson, 1971). This means that if a foreign group 
becomes large enough, the individuals might require formal instruction. 
This research project approaches students registered in the language program 
offered by the Modern Language Department of Tecnológico de Monterrey, Campus 
Monterrey during the January-May 2009semester. It does not approach the total 
population of students registered in all semesters in all the careers offered by Tecnológico 
de Monterrey, Campus Monterrey. 
12 
 
All the students in the sample must meet the graduation requirement: 550 TOEFL 
score. The students in this sample are studying basic and advanced English Courses. This 
sample does not include students who have already accomplished their graduation 
requirement and are studying another foreign language. 
When students are learning a second language they achieve a certain level of 
proficiency to be considered bilingual. This study neither evaluates the students’ level of 
bilingualism nor does it evaluate the students’ level of proficiency in the English 
Language. 
This study does not judge students responses according to ethical values or 
academic standards. Therefore, the results do not attempt to evaluate student 
characteristics, regarding their language learning strategies and academic success. 
 
 
13 
 
Chapter 2: Review of Related Literature 
“Necessity is the mother of bilingualism since the majority of the people use two languages in 
order to function as a human being…" Einar Haugen, 1972 
 
2. 1. Historical Overview of Bilingualism 
Haugen (1972) stated that ‘necessity is the mother of bilingualism´ because most 
of people use two languages in order to function as a human being according to their 
circumstances, job opportunities or intellectual needs; such is the case of immigrants in 
search of a job. He also declares that fortunately, there are other kinds of bilingualism 
that do not have a negative stigma because in many countries bilingualism is part of the 
privilege of the upper classes; for instance, in the Middle Ages all men of learning were 
bilingual; the aristocracy and royalty of Europe were normally bilingual; wherever 
neighbors have lived in peace there is bilingualism as part of their ordinary lives, 
bilingualism is also taught for ritual purposes in the lives of tribes (Haugen, 1972). 
Bilingualism rises from a personal, social or political necessity in the life of the learner, 
when people become bilinguals for a social or political reason such as the case of 
immigrants, it may be discriminatory but in other countries it has been the privilege of 
just a few. 
The definition of the term bilingualism is not quite clear yet; while some 
researchers have preferred a general definition, others do prefer a rather complex way of 
describing this linguistic phenomenon which can be approached within different 
perspectives. Regarding the general definitions of bilingualism, Bloomfield, an American 
Linguist whose main work influenced the structural linguistics in the early thirties, 
defines bilingualism as “a native control of two languages” (Siguan, 2001; Lüdi 2003). 
He also mentions some other causes that make people become bilingual like after early 
childhood few people have enough muscular and nervous freedom or enough opportunity 
and leisure to reach perfection in a foreign language; bilingualism of this kind is more 
common than one might suppose in cases like immigrants for traveling reasons, foreign 
study, among others. He also adds that one cannot define a degree of perfection at which 
a good foreign speaker becomes a bilingual because the distinction is very relative 
14 
 
(Bloomfield, 1984). In the early thirties, bilingualism was defined as the use of two 
languages for entertaining or academic purposes, irrespectively of the degree of mastery. 
People face all types of changes throughout their lives, education is not the 
exception; the globalization phenomenon has had an impact on the individual who needs 
to adapt by developing new skills. Globalization has taken an important part on the 
process of change because it has had an impact at an international level. As a matter of 
fact, Burbules & Torres (2000) point out the support of the UNESCO to some 
educational reforms, this includes the universal access to education, the quality on 
education as a key element for equality, education for life, education as a human right, 
education towards peace, tolerance and democracy, the eco-pedagogy for the ecological 
sustainable development and access to new information and communication technologies. 
Instead of a traditional education it emerges what Morrow & Torres (2000) call “cross-
cultural education” which is defined as cosmopolitan education through new means of 
communication. Education has become a way to attain several objectives such as 
personal, social, ecological, among others. 
2.1.1. The Origins of Bilingual Education 
To master a foreign language is a skill that has always had advantages rather than 
staying monolingual in the native tongue. This has been a fact since last century where 
students were to choose from a basic curriculum of Latin-scientific, modern languages 
and English (Collins, 2004). The English language has been part of the curriculum in 
schools since last century. 
Some other facts influenced on the rising of bilingual education. The theoretical 
and practical contributions of linguistic scientists, like the works presented during the 
first half of the 20th. Century by Saussure; in 1933 by Bloomfield; in 1953 by Haugen and 
in 1966 by Weinreich, among others. There was also the promotional work of Foreign 
Language Program of the Modern Language Association (MLA) which was founded 
since 1883 and whose objective is to promote the study and teaching of language and 
literature (Modern Language Association [MLA], 2008). Consequently, there rose the 
15 
 
gradual forming of a collective consciousness by language teachers; all of this movement 
led to the National Defense Education Act of 1958; but there was no suggestion for 
bilingual education until 1963. Starting bilingual education was a task that involved the 
work of diverse programs and associations as well as the work of individuals who were 
concernedabout the bilingual education transition. 
Bilingual education has gone through different stages since the eighteenth century 
to the present. Ovando (2003) classifies Bilingual Education in the United States into four 
periods: 
1. The Permissive Period: 1700-1880s: In this period groups wanted to 
keep their own culture and language; however bilingualism was not yet 
promoted. 
2. The Restrictive Period: 1880-1960s: During this period the English-only 
programs in schools were promoted. Bilingual education was difficult to 
do considering the diversity of immigrants in the country. However; since 
1958, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act in which 
foreign languages were considered as part of the government’s fellowships 
because the study of foreign cultures, especially Russia, Eastern Europe, 
China and ultimately, Southeast Asia was considered for National Defense 
(Berdahl, 2000). 
3. The Opportunist Period: 1960s-1980s: During this period, it was 
through World War II that Americans realized of their lack of foreign 
language instruction since language, was one of the essential tools for 
military, commercial and diplomatic relations towards its National 
Defense. There were different bilingual programs and the author classifies 
them into 5 categories: 
a. Structured immersion programs where the native language is not 
used and students follow English as a Second Language (ESL) 
instruction. 
16 
 
b. Partial immersion programs where students are provided with 
ESL instruction and only about an hour is dedicated to the native 
language. 
c. Transitional bilingual programs where instruction is given in 
both the native and the second language to the point where students 
moved on to English monolingual programs. 
d. Maintenance or developmental bilingual education: The 
instruction is given in the native language as well as it is in 
English. 
e. Two-way immersion programs also called by Lindholm-Leary & 
Borsato “Dual language education programs” (2005). In these 
programs speakers of both languages are placed together in a 
bilingual classroom to learn each other’s language and to take the 
courses in both languages which is the case of bilingual programs 
designed for Hispanic Children in the United States. 
4. The Dismissive Period: 1980 to the present: The politics of language 
education during the Reagan Period (from 1981 to 1988) and George H. 
W. Bush (from 1989 to 1993) became anti-bilingual. In 1981, President 
Reagan declared that bilingual education was against American concepts. 
However, President Clinton (period of 1993-2001) defended bilingual 
education by restoring funding cutbacks. Nowadays, in the words of 
Ovando (2003) “Researchers, policy makers, school administrators, 
parents, and teachers need to be passionate about providing a first-rate 
educational environment for all children, not only for those who speak 
Standard English” (p.19). 
The Contemporary period of bilingual schooling was inaugurated in the Coral 
Way Elementary School, Dade County, in Miami, Florida. In 1964 the bilingual program 
continued to spread in Laredo Texas, the state of Delaware. The Bilingual Education Act 
of 1968 was the first bilingual education bill in the Congress of the United States 
(Anderson, 1971). It can be said that the positions towards Bilingual Education have been 
17 
 
changing according to social, economical and political outcomes throughout the world. 
Currently, there should be openness to cultural diversity; however, the jury is still out as 
to what the American Educational Model for Bilingual Education should be applied. 
2.1.2. Teaching and Learning Methods 
Foreign language teaching and learning has not always been as popular as it is 
today. Anderson (1971) states that during the 20´s, 30´s, and 40´s in general, there was a 
low period for foreign language learning to the point that it almost disappeared from the 
elementary-school curriculum, it is said that it was because of the increased prestige of 
social studies. 
Later, in the 50´s and 60´s there came significant pedagogical advances 
considering the model of the Army Specialized Training Program (ASTP) which was 
formally established in December 1942 where linguistics was among the main specialties 
taught (Palmer; Wiley & Keast, 1948). Within the foreign language teaching section, 
Schueler (1944) describes that in the ASTP the speaking ability focuses on the colloquial 
form of the language with an acceptable approximation to a native speaker’s 
pronunciation including a practically perfect auditory comprehension of the language 
spoken by native speakers; all of this, can be achieved in six to nine months. This method 
may be categorized as reductionist or minimal functionalist for it left behind one 
receptive and one productive skill; that is to say, reading for the former and writing for 
the latter. 
ESL Methods will be next described; however, some clarifications need to be 
done as to the terminology used in this study. According to Brown, a method refers to a 
generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistic objectives which 
are associated with teacher and students behaviors. During the eighteen and part of the 
nineteen century, a Classical Method was used to teach Greek and Latin. Later on, this 
method became to be known as the Grammar Translation Method (GTM) which 
consisted on following grammatical patterns and translating isolated words (1994). The 
GTM seemed to work for languages that are not used for everyday purposes but for 
18 
 
modern languages there is more to be learned rather than just isolated words and 
structures. 
Through the end of the nineteenth century the trend on language teaching 
consisted on simulating the natural way in which children learn first languages, that is, a 
Direct Method, one example of it is the Berlitz Method (Stieglitz, 1955). Obviously, in 
this method, grammar and translation were not considered because the oral interaction in 
the TL was promoted for communication. 
Then, during the 50´s and 60’s there rose the Audio Lingual Method (ALM) 
emerged. Its characteristics have been summed up by Brown (1994) adapted from Prator 
and Celce-Murcia, 1979 as follows: 
a. New material is presented in dialog form. 
b. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over learning. 
c. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a 
time. 
d. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. 
e. There is little or no grammatical explanation. Grammar is taught by inductive 
analogy rather than deductive explanation. 
f. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. 
g. There is much use of tapes, language labs and visual aids. 
h. Great importance is attached to pronunciation. 
i. Very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. 
j. Successful responses are immediately reinforced. 
k. There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances. 
l. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content. 
This method demanded the language production form students rather than a 
passive attitude during class time. ALM continued being popular for many years to the 
point that there have been adaptations in current methodologies. However, it had 
criticisms (Brown, 1994) regarding failure to teach long-term communicative proficiency, 
besides, language was not really acquired through a process of habit formation, and errors 
19 
 
were not necessarily to be avoided. This method was far from fulfilling the increasing 
necessities Mexican market and educational systems were constructing not only with the 
United States but also with other English speaking nations. 
In 1983, the communicative approach became successful because the objectives 
depended on the learner, they can be functional or linguistic becausethe learner becomes 
a negotiator, that is, an interactor. The theory of language followed in this approach is 
that language is a system for the expression of meaningful primary function, interaction 
and communication. The activities involve real communication using language that is 
meaningful to the learner (Brown, 1994). According to this method, students are able to 
use SL in everyday situations in order to achieve a good level of communication. 
Brown (1994) describes the following methods or approaches, which are used 
indistinctively, that were marketed by entrepreneurs as the latest multi-disciplinary 
research findings: 
a. The Community Language Learning was and affectively based method based on 
Carl Roger’s view of education shared during the sixties, where students are 
regarded as a group rather than a class and learners and teacher facilitate context 
and each individual is important. Certainly, collaborative learning strategies must 
have been used to achieve learning in the whole class. 
b. The suggestopedia method starts in 1979, it is believed that the human brain 
could process great quantities of material if simply given the right conditions for 
learning, the state of relaxation and music were important. This method had 
psychological roots since learning occurs on a relaxed state of mind. 
c. The Silent Way Method, in 1972, where learners discover the meaning by using 
physical objects, like rods which were used for vocabulary and syntax. This method 
is based upon constructivism as students are asked to participate in their own 
learning. 
d. Total Physical Response Method TPR, in 1977, where motion associated with 
learning a language is believed to retain knowledge more easily; it is based on a 
structuralist grammar because the motion and language are related for the 
transmission of meaning. 
20 
 
e. The Natural Approach, in 1983, where there is a lot of communication as 
opposed to analysis. Method co-founders; Terrel and Krashen defined three stages: 
the pre-production stage, listening comprehension; the early production, full of 
errors and the extending production where more complex games are practiced. 
These methods summarized by Brown (1994) promote collaborative work among 
learners by giving them the learning conditions to discover meaning through motion and 
most of it, they promote real communication. 
2.1.3. Language Learning Theories and Models 
The theories on language acquisition and learning integrate the work of other 
disciplines; in other words, when presenting one theory or method various fields are 
integrated. Within 1890 and 1900, behaviorism set the bases for language learning in the 
early stages, then constructivism led the learner be an active part of his learning and that 
is when psychology issues arose because in that case, learning depended on the learners´ 
attitudes, motivation aptitudes. Students of a second language can apply different 
methods for learning the language but it seems that students´ 13-15 interests, attitude and 
necessities will led him/her to master a second language. 
The study of language involves the research in various disciplines. Sharwood 
(1997) includes four aspects of L2 development and use: psychological, neurological, 
pragmatic and sociological. When reviewing ESL literature one can realize that theories, 
models, methods, principles and beliefs integrate various areas of study. There are 
various perspectives for Second Language acquisition and learning closely associated. 
Beebe (1988) considers five perspectives in order to have a full panorama of second 
language acquisition: psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and neurolinguistic, classroom-
centered research and the bilingual education perspective. All of these perspectives 
depend on one another in order to describe their characteristics and views of second 
language. 
Within the field of psycholinguistics previous knowledge and affective factors are 
said to influence in the acquisition process and on the way second language data are 
21 
 
processed (Seliger, 1988). In the field of sociolinguistic perspective five approaches are 
described by Beebe (1988) as follows: 
1. In 1963, according to the Labovian tradition, language varies depending on the 
social characteristics of the speaker. In other words, our language varies according 
to the social context where the speakers are using it. 
2. In 1970, the dynamic paradigm by Derek Bickerton explains the change over 
time in second language; that is to say, language is live that is why it does not stay 
passive, one can say that it goes through an evolution process. 
3. In 1972, the description of communicative competence, by Dell Hymes the 
speaker should be able to use the language in sociolinguistically appropriate ways; 
that is, in the proper social situation where he participates. 
4. In 1980, the Speech Accommodation Theory (SAT) by Howard Giles stated 
that one speaker adapts his way of talking to his interlocutor; this change is 
known as convergence or divergence. 
5. In 1972, attitudes and motivation and their effects on the ultimate success 
learners will have in mastering a second language were considered by Wallace 
Lambert and Gardner. Lambert’s approach is only concerned with sociolinguistic 
variation in the sense that individual learners vary in the level of success they 
achieve when learning a second language. 
In the five approaches just described, the situation and the context where the 
language is used influences on the speakers´ performance in the second language. The 
use of the language is continually changing depending on the place, the people, and his 
attitudes and motivation students have over the second language. 
In the neuropsychological perspective it is important to establish relationships 
between the brain and phenomena associated with acquiring, knowing and using one or 
two languages. In 1980, Vaid and Genesee (in Vaid & Hall, 1991) examined three 
neuropsychological issues related to Second Language Acquisition: The first one had to 
do with the localizations of first language in the left hemisphere and second language in 
the right hemisphere; the second one about the differences in which different languages 
are represented in the brain; for example phonetic languages like English and ideographic 
22 
 
or visual languages like Chinese; and the third one, about a critical neuropsychological 
period for second language learning. In 1967, Lenneberg who developed the Critical 
Period Hypothesis, declared that the critical period for language learning goes from 2 
years old to puberty, that is to say that language learning was difficult after puberty 
because language functions in the left hemisphere are thought to be completed at this age 
(Genesee, 1988). The neuropsychological perspective considers not only the localization 
of language in the bran hemispheres depending on the characteristics of the language 
being learned; but also, the importance of age in the process of learning a second 
language. 
The Audio Lingual Method had a linguistic and psychological base because it was 
through conditioning and habit formation models of learning like memorization, 
structural patters, and successful response that students would learn L2. Behaviourism 
was the theory of learning in which this method was based upon since it focused on 
objectively observable behaviors and they define learning as acquiring a new pattern 
The 80´s is considered by Sharwood (1997) as the third period of language 
research where he describes it as an attempt to refine models of language learning and 
find links between second language research and other theoretical disciplines. The 
Cognitive Theory during 1983-1986 is based on the work made by psychologists and 
psycholinguists. It states that individuals apply the same principles and findings of 
contemporary cognitivepsychology to the mastery to the learning of a second language 
(McLaughlin, 1987). Psychological elements influence on the learning of a second 
language because there is cognitive development during the learning process. 
The 60´s was an epoch of discovering new ideas, life style, ways of thinking; this 
attitude was also reflected on the way of learning. Within the theory of Constructivism 
students were encourage to discover principles by themselves. In 1966, Bruner divides 
instructions into four aspects: predisposition towards learning, the ways in which 
knowledge is structured for students to learn it easily, the optimum sequences to present 
the material, the nature of rewards and punishment (The Theory into Practice [TIP], 
23 
 
2008). The learning process depended on the way the new material is presented to 
students and the attitudes they have to discover meaning by themselves. 
It was during this decade that the term interlanguage was coined by Selinker to 
refer to the interim grammar constructed by second language learners as they learn L2 
(McLaughlin, 1987). Sharwood (1997) characterized this period as an attempt to relate to 
behaviourist habit formation and pre-Chomskyan structural Linguistics to the problems of 
foreign language teaching. In the sixties, Chomsky argued that the first language learner 
comes to the acquisition with innate linguistic knowledge or Universal Grammar (1977). 
In this period students went through a stage where they have to discover language 
patterns through the situations, materials and methodology set in the classroom by the 
teachers, if students were given freedom the language was to be adapted to their previous 
knowledge, L1 included and might be the reason why an interlanguage rose. 
Later, from 1985-1988 Sternberg presented his Triarchic Model of Intelligence 
which is composed of three sub-theories (Reynolds, 1991): 
a. A contextual sub-theory which describes how bilinguals may be more skilled to 
adaptation, for code-switching, selection like when interacting with alternate 
cultures and shaping. 
b. An experiential sub-theory which describes how bilinguals may be a t a general 
linguistic advantage because they have adapted to deal with two code systems. 
c. A componential sub-theory as the final part of the model, it describes that 
bilinguals have the necessity of dealing with two language systems; this improves 
their efficiency of meta-componential system, there is a greater use of learning 
strategies when learning two languages. 
Sternberg’s Triarchic Model shows that bilinguals are able to adapt to new 
situations because they count with two code systems which provide them with several 
strategies within the learning process. 
Figure 1 shows a timeline through the evolution and positions for Bilingual 
Education both in Europe and in America. People who favored bilingualism are included 
24 
 
and the different methods to learn and teach a second language are also included. This 
timeline shows that even though there have been positions against bilingualism, there are 
more benefits for a country to be bilingual as to their army protection, the social, 
economical and political relations towards globalization. 
 
25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Figure 1. Timeline for Bilingual Education, Methods, and Models. 
5th Century Bilingual Aristocracy and Royalty
1700 Preference to keep one´s own language and culture
1880 The Restrictive Period for Bilingualism
1883 The Modern Language Association promotes language and literature 
1933 Saussure promotes bilingual education in Europe
1953 Bloomfield promotes Bilingualism in the United States
1958 National Defense Education Act for foreign languages
1950-1960 The Army Specialized Program for language learning
1960 Constructivism: students discover knowledge 
The interlanguage term was coined. 
Community Language Learning.
1963 Language is used in accordance with social characteristics (Labov) 
1966 Haugen promotes Bilingual Education in the United States
1970 Language is live (Bickerton)
1972 Communicative Competence in Language Learning
The Silent Way for English Learning
1977 The Total Physical response Method for Language Learning
Chomsky´s Universal Grammar 
1979 The Suggestopedia Way for Language Learning 
1980 The Speech Accommodation Theory for Language Use 
1981 President Reagan (period of 1981-1988) against bilingual education 
1983 The Cognitive Theory for Language Learning 
The Natural Approach for Language Learning 
The Communicative Approach for Language Learning 
1984 Bilingualism is a native control of 2 languages (Bloomfield) 
1985 The Triarchic Model of Intelligence for Bilinguals
1988 Five perspectives for ESL: psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, neurolinguistic, 
 classroom-centered and bilingual education (Beebe). 
1989 President Bush (period of 1989-1993) as anti-bilingual
1993 President Clinton (period of 1993-2001) promotes bilingual education 
2000 Globalization leads to internationalization (Burbules & Torres) 
‘Cross cultural education’ (Morrow & Torres).
 2004 English is still part of the school curriculum since last century (Collins) 
26 
 
2.2. Language Learning Outcomes 
While some authors are convinced that bilingualism has more advantages than 
disadvantages, not everyone agreed with this idea in the past. At the end of the XIX 
Century and beginning the XX Century bilingualism started to be considered unreal and 
even harmful to personal development. This is contradictory because in this century is 
when there are international travels and it raises an interest for exotic and new cultures. 
The more knowledge Europeans get from other cultures, the more bilingual persons there 
are in that continent. If bilingualism implies a link between language and culture, it will 
never be possible to have a full bilingual. If the first language implies integrating a new 
culture and that is when the individual’s personality is built, introducing a second 
language and indeed other cultures might not result into a solid and balanced personality 
(Siguan, 2001). 
Baker (1998) overreacted to bilingualism and declared that there is “cerebral 
confusion” and “split personality”. In other words, it has been thought that a bilingual’s 
behavior might not be a very reliable one. Despite these differences, nowadays, other 
authors agree that bilingualism provides students with cognitive flexibility (Baker, 1998; 
Díaz, 1985; in Chipongian, 2000; Latham, 1998; Cataldi, 1994 in Latham, 1998). 
For Archibald, Roy & Harmel (2006) there are many advantages of being exposed 
to a second language, including cognitive advantages that can come from getting a certain 
level of proficiency in a second language. The authors state that learning about others’ 
culture broadens people’s mind. In the past, students had contact with other languages 
such as Latin and Greek in school and this fact enable them to have access to a rich 
literature and a deeper appreciation of the history and structure of the English language. 
In modern times, students have the opportunity to be exposed to international languages, 
heritage languages, official languages (French and English) and Aboriginal languages. 
Needless to say that being aware about other cultural practices expands people´s 
knowledge of the world and its inhabitants. 
27 
 
In 1953 Haugen came up with a more specific definition that is related to the 
actual use of the language, he observed that bilingualism begins when the speaker of one 
language can produce meaningful although limited sentences in the TL. He adds up that a 
bilingual may reach the point where he can be considered by the native speakers of the 
two languages as part of their group (Siguan, 2001). 
Weinreich (1966) shares a definition of bilingualism that has little to do with howdeep and frequent the bilingual uses the languages, bilingualism, he says, it is ‘the 
alternate use two languages’. As Lambert, he also establishes two characteristics of the 
bilingual speaker which leads him to a specific behavior as an agent of language contact: 
The first characteristic is the individual’s aptitude for learning a foreign language; the 
second characteristic is the switching facility from one language to the other according to 
appropriate changes in the speech situation; for instance, interlocutors, topics, etc. if the 
bilingual includes expressions from another language, he may emphasize them by using 
quotations or using a slight pause, change in tense and the like (Weinreich, 1966). 
Cummins and Swain (1986) proposed the following model of bilingual 
proficiency, shown in Figure 2. 
 
28 
 
 
 
Figure 2. The Dual Threshold Model (Cummins & Swan, 1986, p. 18). 
 
 
29 
 
This model suggest that the more proficiency in any language, the more cognitive 
development. This means that students that have a higher level of proficiency in English 
have a higher academic performance. 
Kolers (1963) declared that bilingual memory is represented by two functionally 
independent storage systems that interact only through translation processes; this is 
known as the separate store hypothesis. The interdependence alternative was that all of 
the information exists in a single memory store that has access to different input and 
output language systems called the shared-store hypothesis. Regardless of the storage 
systems bilingual memory certainly keeps more information than does monolingual 
memory. 
English has been considered the international language because it is the code for 
global communication. Rosamond (2002) defines English as the dominant language of 
science and technology because it has been able to adapt itself to the needs and the 
opportunities of globalization of the world economy and trade and greatly increased 
human mobility. Students will be updated in science and technology if they are able to 
use the English language. 
For Archibald, Roy & Harmel (2006) nowadays there are more people becoming 
multilingual for several reasons like personal, aesthetic, academic and economic, to 
mention some. People become bilingual with different purposes for instance to find new 
literatures, friends or business markets, or to keep a connection with the past of a heritage 
language. 
To learn a language is not only learning isolated words, it also implies learning 
customs and even life styles. In 1963, Lambert described the psychology perspective of 
bilingualism which states that an individual who is acquiring a second language gradually 
adopts various aspects of behavior of the other linguistic group. The author believes that 
the learner’s ethnocentric tendencies and his attitudes toward the other group determine 
his success in learning the new language. 
30 
 
Lambert points out that the motivation of the learner is determined by his attitudes 
and orientations and he considered two types of orientation: the orientation is 
instrumental if the purpose of learning reflects the more utilitarian value of linguistic 
achievement, such as getting ahead in one occupation and the orientation is integrative if 
the student wants to be accepted in another cultural group (Gardner, 1991). 
2.2.1. Levels of Proficiency 
The term language proficiency is sometimes used synonymously with language 
competence; at other times to mean a specific, measurable outcome from language 
testing. Language proficiency can be measured through standardized tests which show 
the level of bilingualism of a student. 
Language competence is a broad and general term, used particularly to describe 
inner, mental representation of language, something latent rather than overt. Such 
competence refers usually to an underlying system inferred from language performance 
which is the outward evidence (e.g. from language tests, conversations) for language 
competence. 
Language achievement is normally seen as the outcome of formal instruction. 
Language proficiency and language ability are viewed as the products of a variety of 
mechanisms: formal learning, informal language acquisition (e.g. at home, on the street) 
and of individual characteristics such as intelligence and aptitude for languages 
Therefore, the terms which seem to be more appropriate to measure different 
levels formal and academic language instruction are the following: language proficiency, 
language competence, language ability and language achievement. 
In 1953, Weinreich and later, Ervin & Osgood in 1954 (Weinreich, 1966) 
introduced the hypothesis that bilinguals could be divided into compound and coordinate 
types on the basis of the degree to which translation equivalents exist in the two 
languages. Words have the same meaning for compound bilinguals and a different 
meaning for coordinate bilinguals. This hypothesis implies that the two languages can 
31 
 
function more independently in the case of coordinate than compound bilinguals. In 
1959, Lambert and Fillenbaum proposed a representational substrate for the compound –
coordinate distinction in neuropsychological terms. They suggested that “coordinate 
bilinguals” should have more functionally separate neural structures underlying their 
languages than should compound bilinguals. Coordinate bilinguals communicate more 
efficiently than do compound bilinguals because they do not depend on their native 
language to express an equivalent word. 
Gardner & Smythe (1975) presented a theoretical model that attempted to extend 
the general theory proposed by Lambert to suggest how specific processes might operate 
to influence language proficiency (Gardner, 1991).This model emphasized four classes of 
variables: 
1. The social milieu or environment which was reflected in cultural beliefs 
concerning the importance, relevance, assumed determinants of success and 
expected results of second language learning. 
2. Individual differences that could influence achievement and can be represented 
by intelligence, language aptitude, motivation and situational anxiety. 
3. Second language acquisition contexts where language material could be 
learned, distinguishing between formal language classroom and any other 
informal language experiences. 
4. Outcomes, Gardner’s model proposed two classes of outcomes: 
a. Linguistic outcomes which involve any aspect of achievement in the 
language: a particular skill, some linguistic knowledge. 
b. Non-linguistic outcomes, which refer to any other consequences of the 
language experience. This could include an interest using the language, an 
open appreciation of the other language community and/or other groups in 
general, to increase their motivation to learn more, etc. 
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Language learning depends on the importance that is given to the second 
language, the student’s individual situations and motivations when going through the 
learning experience. 
Later, Lambert (1974) made the distinction related to what extent the individual 
masters the second language depending on the social context in which TL is spoken. He 
makes the distinction between additive and subtractive bilingualism: additive involved 
the acquisition of proficiency in the second language with no major loss in first language 
proficiency, this was applicable majority individuals learning a minority language; 
subtractive was a characteristic of minority group acquiring the language of the majority; 
it involves a loss of cultural identity (Gardner, 1991; Siguan, 2001). In other words, the 
use of a second language will depend on the number of people speaking the language of 
interest; that is to say the first or the second. Additive bilingualism is viewed as a positive 
change while subtractive bilingualism supposes an influence or power from the dominant