Bolmanea2018OceansReport-addressingSDG14issues-datastateoftheart - Ivanna Castro

Vista previa del material en texto

See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331928317
Oceans Report - Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art
knowledge.
Technical Report · February 2018
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29210.59846
CITATIONS
0
READS
9,502
10 authors, including:
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Marine Litter Pollution View project
Toxic pressure of herbicides on microalgae in Dutch estuarine and coastal waters View project
Bas Bolman
Deltares
27 PUBLICATIONS   200 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
Arjen Richard Boon
University of Applied Sciences Avans
60 PUBLICATIONS   854 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
Christophe Briere
Egis Group
39 PUBLICATIONS   373 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
Theo Prins
Deltares
63 PUBLICATIONS   2,685 CITATIONS   
SEE PROFILE
All content following this page was uploaded by Arjen Richard Boon on 12 October 2019.
The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331928317_Oceans_Report_-_Addressing_SDG14_issues_with_factual_data_and_state_of_the_art_knowledge?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_2&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331928317_Oceans_Report_-_Addressing_SDG14_issues_with_factual_data_and_state_of_the_art_knowledge?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_3&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/project/Marine-Litter-Pollution?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_9&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/project/Toxic-pressure-of-herbicides-on-microalgae-in-Dutch-estuarine-and-coastal-waters?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_9&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_1&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bas-Bolman?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bas-Bolman?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Deltares?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Bas-Bolman?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arjen-Boon?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arjen-Boon?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arjen-Boon?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christophe-Briere?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christophe-Briere?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Egis_Group?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Christophe-Briere?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theo-Prins?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_4&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theo-Prins?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_5&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Deltares?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_6&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Theo-Prins?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_7&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Arjen-Boon?enrichId=rgreq-251fbdc9337a3006174c513a748c54f1-XXX&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzMzMTkyODMxNztBUzo4MTMxMDU3ODk1NDI0MDNAMTU3MDg3MDkzNTg3OA%3D%3D&el=1_x_10&_esc=publicationCoverPdf
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
1 of 103 
 
Management summary 
bolman
Typewriter
Oceans Report

Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the art knowledge
bolman
Typewriter
bolman
Typewriter
bolman
Rectangle
bolman
Stamp
bolman
Typewriter
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
Addressing SDG14 issues with factual data and state of the 
art knowledge 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000 
 
 
 
 
© Deltares, 2017, B 
 
 
 
 
Bas Bolman 
Arjen Boon 
Christophe Brière 
Cees van de Guchte 
Theo Prins 
Erwin Roex 
Claudette Spiteri 
Joana Mira Veiga 
Dick Vethaak 
Nicky Villars 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final Deltores
Keywords
Marine policy, Sustainable Development Goals, Blue Economy, Plastics, Pollution
Summary
The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state
of the art knowledge and experiences. The Government of the Netherlands should be active
on the oceans agenda due to the consequences of climate change, the production of
sustainable proteins for food production, the provision of growth and employment, maintaining
world leadership in coastal protection and water management; water innovation; circular
economy and dealing with the problem of marine pollution. Almost half of the world's seabirds
and marine mammals have ingested plastic marine litter and almost every marine organism is
contaminated with synthetic chemicals. As a result of policy measures, riverine loads of
nitrogen and phosphorus have reduced since the 1990s. However, in the Dutch Caribbean
eutrophication is a major stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. Considering
acidification it is estimated that impacts on molluscs and tropical coral reefs will cost over
USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century. Climate change will cause sea level rise
but the Netherlands is well equipped to deal with this in the comingcentury. New monitoring
techniques consist of remote sensing via satellite imagery and aquatic and airborne drones.
These techniques facilitate the monitoring of eutrophication and plastics and other pressures
so that effective policy measures can be taken. The role of the Regional Seas Programmes is
to implement the international agenda on marine and coastal issues. The strategies of RSPs
consist of reducing pollution, resilience for people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem-
based policies and enhancing effectiveness. Regional Seas Conventions are the instrument
to implement RSPs. The Government of the Netherlands regards RSCs as essential for
effective ocean governance.
C8 Jan 2018 Bas Bolman ~ Sharon Tatman -~ Frank Hoozemans \
Initials Review Initials Approval Initi~ljVersion Date Author
Arjen Boon I
Christophe Brière (
Cees van de Guchte
Theo Prins
Erwin Roex
Claudette Spiteri
Joana Mira Veiga
Dick Vethaak
Nick Villars
State
final
Oceans Report
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
i 
 
 
Contents 
Management summary 1 
1 Introduction 3 
1.1 Background and context 3 
1.2 Objective and policy questions 3 
1.3 Approach 4 
1.4 Definitions 4 
1.5 Reading guide 4 
2 Policy context 6 
2.1 International policy 6 
2.2 National policy 11 
2.3 Highlights 13 
3 The importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands 15 
3.1 Blue economy & policy 16 
3.2 Research institutes 24 
3.3 Highlights 25 
4 Identification of relevant issues 29 
4.1 Plastic marine litter 29 
4.2 Contaminants 35 
4.3 Nutrients and organic matter 38 
4.4 Underwater sound 44 
4.5 Acidification 48 
4.6 Coastal protection 50 
4.7 Indonesia as an international case of multiple issues 53 
4.8 Highlights 57 
5 New monitoring technologies 59 
5.1 Definition of the problem 59 
5.2 Policy context 64 
5.3 What are the new technologies and what can they offer? 65 
5.4 Incorporating and transitioning to new technologies 72 
5.5 Key issues & questions 74 
5.6 Highlights 76 
6 The role of relevant institutions 77 
6.1 Regional Seas Conventions 77 
6.2 World Ocean Council 82 
6.3 Other relevant institutions and conferences 83 
6.4 Highlights 85 
7 Conclusions 87 
7.1 Answers to policy questions 87 
7.2 Opportunities and building blocks for policy development 90 
bolman
Text Box
bolman
Text Box
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
ii 
 
7.3 A glance at the future? 92 
8 References 93 
 
Appendices 
A Appendix – List of experts from the Netherlands A-1 
B Appendix – List of FP7 and Horizon 2020 projects B-1 
C Appendix – Overview of Regional Seas Programmes C-1 
D Appendix – Overview of TKI Maritime projects D-1 
E Appendix – Overview of conferences and events E-1 
F Appendix – Overview of relevant Deltares projects in Indonesia F-1 
G Appendix – Project results for policy makers G-1 
 
 
 
 
bolman
Text Box
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
1 of 103 
 
Management summary 
The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state 
of the art knowledge and experiences. This main objective is divided into four policy 
questions. The answers to these questions can be found below. 
 
Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the oceans agenda? 
The Government of the Netherlands should be active on the oceans agenda due to the 
consequences of climate change, the production of sustainable proteins for food production, 
the provision of growth and employment, maintaining world leadership in coastal protection 
and water management; water innovation; circular economy and dealing with the problem of 
marine pollution. 
 
What are the relevant issues? 
The relevant issues selected from an SDG14 perspective are plastic marine litter, 
contaminants, nutrients and organic matter, acidification and coastal protection. Each year, 
app 8 million tonnes of plastic enter the oceans. All marine turtles and almost half of the 
world’s seabirds and marine mammals have ingested plastic marine litter. Almost every 
marine organism is contaminated with synthetic chemicals. In the Netherlands many different 
pesticides are detected in surface waters; many exceed the water quality standards. 
Eutrophication leads to changes in biogeochemical cycling of elements, changes in food 
webs and oxygen depletion. As a result of policy measures, riverine loads of nitrogen and 
phosphorus have reduced since the 1990s. In the Dutch Caribbean eutrophication is a major 
stressor for coral reefs and seagrass meadows. App. 26% of the anthropogenic CO2 emitted 
to the atmosphere is absorbed by the ocean. It is estimated that impacts on molluscs and 
tropical coral reefs will cost over USD 1,000 billion annually by the end of the century. The 
IPCC estimates that the frequency and impact of coastal flooding events are likely to increase 
in the future due to climate change and sea level rise. The Netherlands is well equipped to 
deal with sea level rise in this century. 
 
What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? 
The importance of new technologies to monitor SDG14 is to enable policy makers to increase 
awareness of the status of the marine environment and to develop appropriate policy 
measures to combat marine pollution (SDG14.1) and acidification (SDG14.3). The Sentinel-2 
and Sentinel-3 satellites to measure chlorophyll-a, turbidity, and suspended sediment 
concentration. The monitoring of marine plastics is still a new area; ESA is sponsoring new 
projects to detect plastics via satellite observations. The EU and OSPAR are assessing the 
possibilities of satellite remote sensing for MSFD eutrophication assessments of the North 
Sea. Aquatic and airborne drones are currently being tested, e.g. to measure water depth, to 
inspect structures, to collect samples for water quality measurements and to identify floating 
(plastic) litter. 
 
What is the role of relevant institutions for policy development on oceans? 
The role of the Regional Seas Programmes is to implement the international agenda on 
marine and coastal issues. The strategies of RSPs consist of reducing pollution, resilience for 
people and ecosystems, integrated ecosystem-based policies and enhancing effectiveness. 
Regional Seas Conventions are the instrument to implement RSPs. The Government of the 
Netherlands regards RSCs as essential for effective ocean governance. Of strategic 
importance to the Netherlands are the Wider Caribbean Region (Cartagena Convention) and 
the Arctic Region (Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy – AEPS). 
bolman
Text Box
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
3 of 103 
 
1 Introduction 
1.1 Background and context 
 
There is a new momentum within the ministries of Infrastructure and Water management 
(MinIenW), Foreign Affairs (MinBuZa), Economic Affairs and Climate Policy (MinEZK) and 
Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality (MinLNV) to address various issues on the sustainable 
governance of oceans and the seas, in particularly those mentioned under Sustainable 
Development Goal (SDG) 14. This momentum was created after the Oceans Brief (April 
2017) on Oceans to the Dutch parliament
1
 and the United Nations (UN) SDG 14 Oceans 
Conference in New York (June 2017). 
 
The interest of the Government of the Netherlands also comprises indications on the 
importance of oceans and seas for both policies and economic development in the 
Netherlands. An item to be addressed concurrently relates to signalling and roughly 
assessing the importance of the Regional Seas Conventions as vehicle to implement 
(elements of) the action agenda of the Netherlands. 
1.2 Objective and policy questions 
 
The objective of this report is to address identified SDG14 issues with factual data and state 
of the art knowledge and experiences.Possible relations between SDG14 with current 
international policy agendas of the Netherlands will also be addressed. This main objective is 
divided into four policy questions: 
 
a. Why should the Government of the Netherlands be active on the Oceans agenda? 
b. What are the relevant issues? 
c. What is the importance of new technologies in support of monitoring SDG14? 
d. What is the role of relevant institutions in the context of policy development on oceans? 
 
These four policy questions are further elaborated below: 
 
a. This policy question includes links with the relevant transition agendas of the Dutch 
Government. The size of the blue economy as an indicator of the importance of the 
oceans and seas for economic development in the Netherlands will be assessed, 
including the importance for the relevant research institutes in terms of turnover. Links will 
also be made with Top Sector Water & Maritime. Where possible, the connections will be 
described between the proposed activities of TKI Maritime and its contributions to the 
SDG14 agenda and the objectives of the transition agenda of MinIenW. 
b. The identification of relevant issues relates to the following topics: 
• Pollution, including nutrients, contaminants and emerging ones, plastics and underwater 
sound, acidification 
• Coastal protection against flooding 
c. This report also provides an indication of the importance of new technologies in support of 
monitoring SDG14, such as global observatories and satellite data. Such new 
developments maybe considered by the Government of the Netherlands regarding their 
input in upcoming reviews of the existing SDG14 monitoring and reporting mechanisms. 
 
1
 http://bit.ly/2janYYT 
http://bit.ly/2janYYT
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
4 of 103 
 
d. In the section on the analysis of the roles of relevant institutions in the context of policy 
development on oceans, special emphasis will be put on assessing the role of the 
Regional Seas Conventions. Opportunities will be identified to explore and/or present 
building blocks of policy development in the Netherlands on oceans and seas. 
1.3 Approach 
 
This report is based on a literature study. Both grey literature such as policy documents and 
sector reviews as well as peer reviewed papers were used. Where appropriate experts of 
Deltares have been consulted. 
 
Considering the scope of this assignment, the focus is on relevant Dutch policy related to 
oceans. Several sectors are not covered in this report, including navy and inland shipping. 
The navy is excluded due to its public nature; inland shipping is excluded due to the fact that 
this activity does not take place in marine waters. 
 
1.4 Definitions 
 
This report uses a variety of concepts of with known definitions. As such it is assumed that 
the reader is familiar with the domain of marine policy. However, some concepts may not be 
known even by experienced readers. Below a selection of concepts is defined in detail. 
 
Production value 
Production value is defined as the value of all goods with the purpose to be sold, including 
those not yet sold. Production value also includes incomes for delivered services as well as 
the value of products with a market equivalent produced for own use such as self-
management, home-grown and agricultural products for own consumption by farmers (CBS, 
2017). 
 
Value added 
Value added is defined as the difference between production value and intermediate 
consumption (excluding deductible VAT). Intermediate consumption is defined as the 
products consumed during the reporting period in the production process, valued at purchase 
prices, excluding deductible VAT. These may or may not be raw materials, semi-
manufactured goods and fuels purchased during the reporting period, but also services such 
as communications services, cleaning services and external audit services (CBS, 2017). 
 
1.5 Reading guide 
 
The report continues with an analysis of the policy context in chapter 2 in order to provide the 
reader with more background information. In chapter 2 the five transitions of the Transition 
Agenda of MinIenW are mentioned. Three of these transitions are relevant for this report: 
energy transition (green symbol), climate adaptation (red symbol) and circular economy (blue 
symbol). The symbols on the left of this section will guide the reader throughout the report. 
The policy framework of chapter 2 will be applied in chapter 3 to each of the maritime sectors. 
Additionally the size of each sector in the blue economy is addressed. Chapter 3 also covers 
an overview of the economic relevance of research institutes in the Netherlands, focussing on 
marine and maritime disciplines. Chapter 4 addresses the above mentioned issues, including 
pollution, nutrients, contaminants, plastics, underwater sound, acidification and coastal 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
5 of 103 
 
protection. Indonesia is used as an international example where multiple issues come 
together. Chapter 5 presents the emerging technologies that may be used to monitor SDG14 
targets. Chapter 6 analyses the regional seas conventions; relevant institutions and 
conferences in the context of the above mentioned policies are listed. The report finishes with 
chapter 7, answering the policy questions and providing recommendations. 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
6 of 103 
 
2 Policy context 
This chapter provides an overview of the selected policy framework. In the international 
section policies such as SDG14 and UNCLOS are analysed. In the national section the 
Topsector Water & Maritime, Green Deals and the transition agenda of MinIenW are 
elaborated. Hence, this section does not evaluate the effectiveness and/or efficiency of policy; 
rather the aim is to provide a background of the policies first, before applying them to the 
context of maritime sectors in the next section. 
 
2.1 International policy 
 
SDG14 
On 25 September 2015 countries adopted a set of goals with the aim to end poverty, protect 
the planet, and ensure prosperity for all. This is part of a new sustainable development 
agenda which is implemented between 2016-2030. Each goal has a specific set of targets. In 
total there are 17 SDGs. The Addis Ababa Action Agenda provides concrete policies and 
actions to support the implementation of the SDGs. In principle, implementation is the 
responsibility of nation states. However, all other stakeholders are expected to contribute to 
the realisation of the agenda (UN, 2017a). Implementation is still in an initial phase and many 
efforts are needed to realise actual progress instead of simply linking existing initiatives to the 
SDGs. According to the Oceans Brief, more ambition and an integral vision are needed to 
realise the SDG targets (MinBuZa, 2017). Monitoring of the progress occurs via a set of 169 
indicators that are connected to the targets of the SDGs. On a national level, CBS is 
responsible for measuring the progress. Currently a third of all SDGs indicators are 
measurable by CBS. In some cases other indicators have been found to monitor the progress 
of SDGs. However, it is likely that new indicators need to be developed in order to be able to 
monitor the full set of indicators (CBS, 2016). On a EU level, Eurostat is the responsible 
agency to monitor the SDGs on member state level. The overall objective of SDG14 is to 
conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable 
development. SDG14 contains 10 targets with 10 connecting indicators. At this moment the 
Government of the Netherlands has identified three SDG14 targets which have their primary 
interest to be addressedin respect to the above (UN, 2017a): 
 
14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly reduce marine pollution of all kinds, particularly 
from land-based activities, including marine debris and nutrient pollution. Among 
Box 2.1 - Facts & figures on policy 
 SDG14 focuses on increasing knowledge and reducing marine pollution and acidification 
 The Top Sector Water & Maritime has resulted in 32 projects on global water challenges 
 Green Deals stimulate green economic growth by enabling new and sustainable initiatives 
 Relevant ocean topics on the transition agenda of MinIenW are energy transition, climate 
adaptation and circular economy 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
7 of 103 
 
others, a new Memorandum of Understanding / Voluntary Agreement has been 
signed in New York (June 2017), on “Ghost Gear” in fisheries
2
. 
14.3 Minimize and address the impacts of ocean acidification, including through enhanced 
scientific cooperation at all levels. This issue directly relates to combatting CO2 
emissions as being debated under the Climate Convention. There appears to be a 
considerable variation in acidification both at global, regional and local scales. 
Envisaged impacts (e.g. on corals) bring irreversible tipping points into sight
3
. 
14.a Increase scientific knowledge, develop research capacity and transfer marine 
technology, taking into account the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission 
Criteria and Guidelines on the Transfer of Marine Technology, in order to improve 
ocean health and to enhance the contribution of marine biodiversity to the 
development of developing countries, in particular Small Island Developing States 
and least developed countries. 
 
 
Marine Strategy Framework Directive & Water Framework Directive 
The Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD - Directive 2008/56/EC) aims to protect and 
restore Europe's marine ecosystems and to ensure the ecological sustainability of economic 
activities linked to the marine environment in European Seas. It is the first EU legislative 
instrument related to the protection of marine biodiversity and ecosystems. It focuses 
specifically on 11 qualitative Descriptors of Good Environmental Status, around which the 
national marine strategies are developed and implemented. The process is cyclical and the 
implementation at national level entails: an assessment of the environmental status; the 
establishment of targets; the implementation of monitoring and programme of measures. The 
2nd cycle will start in 2018, for which the EC has published a revised set of criteria and 
methodological standards (Commission Decision on Good Environmental Status) for the 11 
Descriptors. 
 
The Water Framework Directive (WFD – Directive 200/60/EC) was adopted in 2000, and aims 
at protecting aquatic ecosystems and promoting sustainable water, preventing deterioration 
and achieving good status of Europe’s waters. Water management under the WFD focuses 
on river basins as the natural geographical and hydrological unit, and concerns both surface 
waters and groundwater. The WFD specifically addresses pollution and other pressures that 
have an impact on the ecological status, which is assessed on the basis of four biological 
quality elements. The WFD covers coastal waters (up to the 1st nautical mile for ecological 
status and 12 nautical mile for chemical status). Thus, in coastal waters there is some overlap 
with the MSFD, but the MSFD has a broader coverage of environmental issues through the 
11 Descriptors of Good Environmental Status. The WFD has a 6-year cycle of 
implementation, where the assessment of ecological status, monitoring and the definition of 
programs of measures are laid down in River Basin Management Plans (RBMP). The most 
recent RBMPs were published in 2015. Many of the measures in the RBMPs concern 
pressures by human activities on land or in the river basins, that also have an impact on the 
marine environments. Consequently, achieving good status under the MSFD is partly 
dependent on the WFD implementation. 
 
 
 
 
 
2
 The topic of fisheries is not further elaborated in this report since this sector is the responsibility of MinLNV. 
3
 A separate study is being addressed by Henk Merkus, Dirk-Jan Sloot (DGRW), incl. Anouk Blauw (Deltares), and 
is not part of this present assignment. The Deltares study will provide a rough indication of relevant Dutch 
contributions on this issue. 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
8 of 103 
 
UNCLOS 
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) defines the rights and 
responsibilities of nations with respect to their use of the world's oceans, establishing 
guidelines for businesses, the environment, and the management of marine natural 
resources. As illustrated in Figure 2.1, UNCLOS defines the maritime zones such as the 
territorial sea (water column and seabed within 12 nautical miles) and the Exclusive 
Economic Zone (EEZ, water column and sea bed within 200 nautical miles), the extended 
continental shelf (seabed within 150 nautical miles extended from the EEZ) and the high seas 
(UN, 1982). Some nations have signed UNCLOS but did not ratify the convention; a well-
known example is the United States. Reasons for not ratifying UNCLOS may relate to 
sovereignty arguments. 
 
Figure 2.1: maritime zones according to UNCLOS (Bähr, 2017) 
 
 
The claims of nations on the seabed of the Arctic Ocean are an example where UNCLOS 
plays a crucial role. Under UNCLOS nations may access their natural resources within the 
200 mile zone. To access resources in the seabed of the extended continental shelf (an 
additional 150 miles), nations can apply for such an extension with the Commission on the 
Limits of the Continental Shelf. This must be done within 10 years after ratifying UNCLOS. By 
means of geological evidence, nations have to prove that their continental shelf extends 
beyond the 200 mile zone. As of 2017, Denmark, Russia and Norway have submitted their 
claims to the Commission. 
 
The high seas are a primary reason of concern regarding the effectiveness of international 
governance. Under UNCLOS the access to resources in the water column are open to all 
(UN, 1982). Free access and the freedom of fishing for all states have resulted in the so-
called Tragedy of the Commons (Economist, 2014). This is confirmed by the Oceans Brief, 
stating that the “laissez-faire” attitude of the world community regarding oceans is a very large 
risk for all humans on the planet including the planet itself. As such, current governance 
structures for the management of the high seas are insufficient to achieve healthy and 
productive oceans and seas for future generations (MinBuZa, 2017). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
9 of 103 
 
Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction 
The conservation of Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) is a new treaty in the 
making and will be part of UNCLOS. Due to the above mentioned “laissez-faire” problem of 
UNCLOS it has not been possible to address the conservation and sustainable use of marine 
biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction. This problem should be tackled by 
the BBNJ process, which started in 2006. In 2015 the General Assembly agreed that an 
internationally binding instrument should be developed under UNCLOS. In 2017 countries 
agreed to recommend elements for the treaty. It is expected that a conference on the 
elaboration of the treaty will be organised in 2018 (UN, 2017b). The Government of the 
Netherlands is very active in the negotiations towards a treaty. It aims for establishing binding 
agreements on protected areas in the high seas, with mandatory environmental impact 
assessments and sound international agreement on the accessand division of genetic 
resources from the high seas (MinBuZa, 2017). 
 
Marine Protected Areas 
Marine biodiversity in the Netherlands is protected under the Birds Directive (2009/147/EC) 
and Habitats Directives (92/43/EEC). Based on these directives the EU adopted the Natura 
2000 framework in 1992. The aim of Natura 2000 is to conserve and restore biodiversity in 
the EU. Currently five areas have been appointed as Natura 2000 areas, with a total of 19% 
of the Dutch EEZ (Figure 2.2): 
1. Wadden Sea 
2. Voordelta 
3. Noordzeekustzone 
4. Vlakte van de Raan 
5. Klaverbank 
6. Friese Front 
7. Doggerbank 
 
Management plans have been made for the Wadden Sea, Noordzeekustzone, Voordelta, 
Noordzeekustzone and Vlakte van de Raan. Management plans are a first way of licensing 
for conducting activities in MPAs; another way of obtaining a license is via an Environmental 
Impact Assessment
4
. In case of both instruments initiators of a proposed development or plan 
have to consult an independent research institute to assess their impact on conservation 
objectives. 
 
Contrary to many other MPAs in the world, most areas in the Netherlands are not closed for 
marine activities. In fact only 1.4% of the MPAs in the Dutch EEZ are fully protected. An 
example is the Noordzeekustzone. According to the latest outcomes of negotiations between 
Fishery Organisations, Authorities and NGOs (VIBEG 2), the Noordzeekustzone is divided 
into six zones: 1) closed areas for fisheries, 2) open for fisheries except bottom trawling, 3) 
innovation areas, 4) other fishery areas, 5) research areas and 6) dynamic zoning. The 
closed area of zone 1 consists of approximately 10% of the total area MinEZ, 2017). 
 
Clearly the Government of the Netherlands is under pressure; although fisheries and 
aquaculture are the smallest maritime sector (see paragraph 2.1) they have built up an 
enormous lobby to keep areas open, especially regarding MPAs but also regarding offshore 
wind parks. On the other side the Government is under pressure from NGOs, using the 
argument that only less than 1.4% of the MPAs in the Dutch EEZ is truly protected. Yet 
internationally the Government of the Netherlands is putting effort in the negotiations on the 
protection of biodiversity in the high seas. It aims to establish binding agreements on MPAs. 
 
 
4
 Or Passende Beoordeling in Dutch 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
10 of 103 
 
 
Figure 2.2: overview of marine Natura 2000 areas in the Netherlands (Van der Wal, 2010) 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
11 of 103 
 
2.2 National policy 
 
Top Sector Water & Maritime 
In 2010 the Cabinet of the Netherlands introduced the Top Sector Policy. The idea behind this 
policy is to stimulate the sustainable growth of sectors through research, development and 
innovation via public-private cooperation. The reason to do this is the ambition to maintain the 
top position of the Netherlands and to strengthen its international competitive position. The 
Minister of Economic Affairs is responsible for the nine Top Sectors, including Agri & Food, 
Chemical industry, Creative industry, Energy, High Tech Systems & Materials, Logistics, Life 
Sciences & Health, Horticulture & Starting Materials and Water & Maritime. 
 
The Top Sector Water and Maritime aims to tackle global water challenges to increase 
welfare. Such challenges consist, amongst others, of a growing world population, 
urbanisation and climate change. This Top Sector consists of three sub-sectors (also known 
as Topconsortia for Knowledge and Innovation or TKIs): Water Technology, Delta Technology 
and Maritime Technology. This report focuses on Maritime Technology, which contains four 
themes: mining at sea, clean ships, smart and safe shipping and effective infrastructure (see 
Figure 2.3) (Top Sectoren, 2017; Top Sector Water, 2017). 
 
 
 
Figure 2.3: schematic overview of the nine Top Sectors, with a focus on the Top Sector Water & Maritime, 
which entails three TKIs. TKI Maritime Technology entails four themes (made by authors). 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
12 of 103 
 
The implementation of TKI Maritime occurs in three configurations. The first configuration is 
seed money projects, organised via Maritime Innovation Impulse Projects (MIIP). Consortia of 
industries, research institutes and sometimes also NGOs can submit project proposals to the 
Innovation Council. Each project receives up to EUR 30.000, which is 50% of the total costs. 
Between 2014 and 2017 a total 32 projects have been granted financing. The second 
configuration is Joint Industry Projects (JIPs). Again, consortia of industries and research 
institutes can submit project proposals, this time to the TKI Board. The size of JIPs varies 
from several hundreds of thousands of euros to several million euros. At least 40% of this 
amount should be financed by industrial partners, in cash and/or in kind. In 2016 a total of 25 
JIPs have been granted financing. The third configuration is the MIT
5
 regulation. The aim of 
this regulation is to stimulate innovation in SMEs across the borders of regions in the 
Netherlands. Subsidies are provided for knowledge vouchers, consulting, feasibility studies 
(with a maximum of EUR 25.000) and R&D cooperation. Note that this regulation was not 
specifically made for the maritime sector. As of 2017 it is not clear which projects have been 
granted for the maritime sector (Top Sector Water, 2017; NML, 2014). 
 
 
Green Deals 
The Green Deals approach exists since 2011. The government of the Netherlands wants 
stimulate green economic growth by enabling new and sustainable initiatives from the society, 
for example in the domain of resources, biodiversity, water, mobility, energy, climate, food, 
construction and biobased economy. This is done by removing obstacles in laws and 
regulations, creation of new markets, provision of information and stimulation of optimal 
cooperation. Via clear agreements among specific partners concrete results can be achieved; 
each partner has its own responsibility. As of mid-2016 a total of 200 Green Deals have been 
made with over 1,200 parties. The Netherlands Enterprise Agency is responsible for 
assessing new initiatives and assess if the criteria are met (Green Deals, 2017a). 
 
Transition agenda 
The MinIenW transition agenda is based on the long term ambitions of the Ministry, captured 
in the document “Koers IenM”. This document identifies a series of trends and developments 
that will impact society, such as the involvement of civilians in policy and implementation, big 
data and decentralisation. It also lists ambitions for the Netherlands in terms of coastal 
protection, infrastructure, recycling, participation and smart cities (MinIenM, 2015). In 2016, 
the board of directors of MinIenW used the objectives of the document to formulate five 
transitions. In the next period these transitions will be made more concrete, in cooperation 
with the (political) environment. The five transitions include: 
1. Energy transition 
Reduce CO2 emissions to zero by 2050 as quickly as possible to help combat global 
warming; 
2. Climate adaptation 
Ensure that the (effects of) flooding remain to a minimum; 
3. Smart and green mobility 
An infrastructure of high quality and good accessibility, including the necessary 
investment. Together with the regions, MinIenW supports development towards smart 
mobility; 
4. Circular economy 
 
5
 Mkb-innovatiestimulering Regio en Topsectoren 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
13 of 103 
 
By 2050, all raw materials are optimally used and reused. Productsand materials are 
reusable from design. The production of new raw materials takes place in a sustainable 
manner; 
5. Liveable and accessible cities 
We are working on an excellent spatial economic structure and good international 
accessibility of the urban regions. 
 
For this report three transitions are relevant: energy transition, climate adaptation and circular 
economy. Where relevant in the text, a symbol has been used to refer to the appropriate 
transition. 
 
2.3 Highlights 
 
1. Be aware of the current neoliberal dogma in marine policy 
National policies focus on the sustainable use of seas and oceans; the primary focus is 
economic growth and development. Sustainability and the reduction of environmental impacts 
are secondary to economic interests. This is not always made explicit; therefore it is wise to 
be aware of the neoliberal oriented dogma that is currently dominant in marine management 
in the Netherlands. This also applies to other maritime nations. As the Oceans Brief states, 
the “laissez-faire” attitude of the world community regarding oceans is a very large risk for all 
humans on the planet including the planet itself. The same brief also states that current 
governance structures for the management of the high seas are insufficient to achieve 
healthy and productive oceans and seas for future generations. 
 
 
 
2. Better integration of marine policy with SDG14, incl. EU policies and blue economy 
Policies could be better connected with each other; both at the organisational level as well as 
the content level. It is recommended that the SDGs in general are integrated into the Top 
Sectors and Green Deals in order to provide for shared ambitions. Moreover, within the Top 
Sectors and Green Deals more synergies and connections can be made; this will reduce 
overlap and stimulate cooperation. 
 
3. Establish an action plan for the implementation of the SDGs 
Currently many public and private organisations are active with the SDGs. However, in most 
cases it is simply linking existing initiatives to the SDGs. This is not enough, otherwise the 
SDG targets would have been realised already. New actions are needed that directly 
contribute to the SDGs, and specifically SDG14. Clearly more and concrete efforts in the form 
of committed and shared actions are needed. This is underlined by the Oceans Brief, stating 
that more ambition and an integral vision are needed to realise the SDG targets (MinBuZa, 
2017). 
 
4. MPAs: do international ambitions align with national reality? 
Internationally the Government of the Netherlands is putting effort in the negotiations on the 
protection of biodiversity in the high seas. It aims to establish binding agreements on marine 
protected areas (MPAs). At the same time MPAs in the Netherlands seem to be 
compromised; only 1.4% of the North Sea is currently fully protected. Other MPAs have been 
assigned but these are not fully protected. Thus it seems that the international efforts of the 
Government of the Netherlands are more ambitious than the current state of MPAs in the 
Dutch EEZ. 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
14 of 103 
 
5. Operationalise the Oceans Brief 
The Oceans Brief of 2017 is an ambitious document setting clear targets on what to achieve. 
As such the brief is a very useful Oceans agenda as it prioritises many maritime and marine 
issues. The next step should be the operationalisation of the Oceans Brief; in other words, 
how to achieve the ambitions. Clear actions are needed with a clearly defined commitment 
and responsibility by ministries together with timelines. 
 
6. Be aware of the relevance of other SDGs 
Although SDG14 explicitly focuses on Oceans, other SDGs are also relevant. SDG2.4 
focuses on sustainability in agriculture. SDG6.3 focuses on the reduction of pollution from 
land-based sources to fresh water systems. SDG12.4 relates to the management and 
reduction of chemicals and waste in production and consumption. SDG15.1 aims to achieve 
sustainable use of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems and SDG 15.8 wants to 
reduce the impacts of non-indigenous species. These other SDGs reconfirm the 
interconnectedness between fresh water and marine ecosystems via a series of pressures 
such as nutrients, residues and waste. 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
15 of 103 
 
3 The importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands 
This chapter describes the blue economy of the maritime sectors in the Netherlands. Figures 
on production values, value added and employment are presented first. To put these figures 
into a broader context a comparison with the EU is made. The navy sector, the fisheries and 
aquaculture sector and the inland shipping sectors are not covered here. Note that economic 
figures are always a topic of debate. An example is whether or not to include tourism and 
more specifically hotel nights as a contributor to the blue economy. In the report of Nederland 
Maritiem Land (NML) this is not covered whereas the European report of COGEA does focus 
on tourism explicitly. Hence, NML and COGEA apply different statistical methods. Therefore it 
is advised to regard the below mentioned figures as indicative. 
 
This chapter focuses primarily on the blue economy and the relation between maritime 
sectors and policies. However economics are not the only way to illustrate the importance of 
oceans and seas. Water and the Netherlands are inseparable already for thousands of years. 
Oceans and seas are crucial for the existence of the Netherlands; in the past, the present and 
the future. On a global level, 2.9 billion people obtain 20% of their protein needs from fish, 
while 90% of the global fish population is maximally exploited (Bähr, 2017). Oceans and seas 
play a very important role in easing the effects of climate change. Recent estimates have 
calculated that 26 to 27% of the CO2 from human activities over the decade 2002–2011 was 
absorbed by the oceans (Figure 3.1 - Le Quéré, 2012; Bähr, 2017). Currents in the Atlantic 
Ocean such as the Gulf Stream bring warm surface waters north and send cold, deeper waters 
south (Hand, 2016). The warm water of the Gulf Stream causes North-western Europe to have 
a relatively mild climate; this enables human activities such as fisheries, aquaculture and 
agriculture. 
 
Box 3.1 - Facts & figures on the importance of oceans and seas for the Netherlands 
 Healthy oceans are crucial for human kind as a source of food and for CO2 absorption 
 The blue economy of the Netherlands generates app. 3.3% of the gross domestic product 
 Harbours is the largest sector with a total production value of EUR 19.053 million and a 
total employment of 80.431 persons 
 The maritime sector connects mostly to SDG14.3 with investments in energy transitions 
 The turnover of research institutes was EUR 205 million in 2016, employing 1,400 persons 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
16 of 103 
 
 
Figure 3.1: Absorption of natural and anthropogenic CO2 emissions (Bähr, 2017) 
3.1 Blue economy & policy 
 
Shipping and shipyards 
In 2016, the production value
6
 of shipping was EUR 7,731 million (EUR 5,582 million directly); 
as such shipping is the 3
rd
 largest maritime sector of the Netherlands. The total value added 
amounted to EUR 2,375 million (EUR 1,427 million directly). The production value of the 
shipyard sector was EUR 7.390 million in 2016 (EUR 4,383 million directly); this sector is the 
4
th
 largest of the Netherlands in terms of total production value. The total value added 
amounted to EUR 2,291 million (EUR 1,091 million directly).The shipping sector provided 
employment for 18,041 people (7,506 directly) while the shipyard sector employed 32,805 
persons (11,661 directly) (Bosscheet al., 2017). According to COGEA (2017), the 
Netherlands accounted for 9% of the total gross value added for shipping in the EU in 2014 
and 9% of the total employment. In the shipyard sector 6% of the total employment originated 
from the Netherlands
7
 (COGEA, 2017). 
 
SDG14 
The shipping and shipyards sectors contribute to sub-objectives 14.1 and 14.3 of SDG14. 
Regarding the reduction of marine pollution (SDG 14.1), the shipping sector in the 
Netherlands acknowledges the concerns on pollution and the long term effects for the earth, 
biodiversity and ultimately human health. Current efforts to improve the environmental 
performance of the sector focus on waste facilities in harbours. The Royal Dutch Shipowners 
Association (RDSA) is working towards harmonised regulations, trying to streamline different 
interpretations of rules for waste facilities. Additionally harbours should have sufficient 
capacity to process waste. Regarding ocean acidification (SDG 14.3), the shipping sector can 
choose from a series of voluntary environmental indices to indicate the environmental 
performance of ships; examples include Environmental Ship Index, Clean Shipping Index, 
Green Award and EEDI. Currently the focus is on LNG as a measure to reduce SOx (and 
NOx and CO2). The main challenge is to realise LNG infrastructure as soon as possible. 
Technological measures such as low sulphur fuels and scrubbers are regarded as 
problematic because they require large investments (KVNR, 2017). The main driver to adopt 
new technologies comes from introduction of Emission Control Areas by the International 
Maritime Organisation (IMO) (Figure 3.2). Strict sulphur norms of 0.5% will enter into force in 
 
6
 The definitions of production value and value added can be found in chapter one 
7
 Data on the total gross value added in the Netherlands in 2014 is missing in the COGEA database 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
17 of 103 
 
2020 on a global scale. The North Sea will have strict norm for NOx from 2021 onwards 
which is 70% stricter than the current norm (MinBuZa, 2017). LNG is often praised as an 
important transitional fuel in the maritime sector. For the oil & gas industry LNG is part of the 
plan to focus more on gas and less on oil, as the latter becomes more controversial in the 
light of the Paris Agreement. Surely LNG has advantages when compared to Heavy Fuel Oil 
(HFO). Specifically for those emissions with a local impact LNG performance is impressive: 
NOx is reduced with app. 90%, SOx is reduced with app. 95% and Particular Matter (PM) is 
reduced with app. 95%. However, from a perspective of climate change the performance of 
LNG is not so impressive; CO2 emissions are reduced only with app. 20% (DNV GL, 2013). 
Also, it is often underestimated how expensive and complicated LNG projects are. Looking at 
the full life cycle in the supply chain of LNG, the fuel tends to be more energy and 
greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive than the supply chain for pipeline gas, because of the extra 
processing steps (Kavalov et al., 2009). In short, LNG may be a transitional fuel; it is not the 
ideal fuel for a low carbon economy (Cameron, 2008). Regarding SDG 14.a, the shipping and 
shipyard sectors mainly cooperate with the research institutes of TNO and MARIN. Examples 
of projects can be found below in the section on TKI Maritime. 
 
Figure 3.2: Shipping lanes and (future) Emission Control Areas (Bähr, 2017) 
 
TKI Maritime 
Reducing shipping emissions is addressed via the clean ships theme of TKI Maritime. Within 
this theme, topics such as the reduction of fuel consumption, emissions and efficient use of 
materials and underwater sound are covered. In the clean ships theme, 7 projects are 
currently running. These projects focus on topics such as more efficient propellers, hull 
optimisation in still waters, hybrid propulsion systems, Energy Saving Devices and predicting 
ship resistance, cavitation and pressure fluctuations (TKI Maritiem, 2017). 
 
Green Deals 
As of 2017 there is one Green Deal covering the topic of shipping, called the “Shipping Waste 
Chain”. The aim is to reduce further pollution of seas and oceans. The cooperating partners 
want to contribute to closing the plastic cycle via prevention, separation and recycling of 
plastic, improvement of supervision and harmonisation of waste collection in harbours. As 
part of the Green Deal, the ports of Rotterdam and Amsterdam offer the service to ships 
owners to hand over their plastic waste for free. The Government of the Netherlands has 
committed itself to also approach other nations due to the international character of shipping. 
A selection of other involved partners in this Green Deal includes Groningen Seaport, Port 
Authorities of Amsterdam and Rotterdam, RDSA and the North Sea Foundation (Green 
Deals, 2017b). In the new government agreement of 2017 the cooperating political parties 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
18 of 103 
 
acknowledge that the environmental performance of the shipping sector in the Netherlands 
can be further improved. A new Green Deal is proposed to increase the sustainability of 
inland shipping, nautical shipping and harbours (Kabinetsformatie, 2017). 
 
Transition agenda 
The topic of shipping emissions also connects to the transition agenda of the Ministry of 
Infrastructure & Environment. SDG 14.1, the efforts of RDSA and the projects of TKI Maritime 
all connect to the first topic of the agenda which entails Energy Transition. The aim of this 
transition is to reduce CO2 emissions as fast as possible to net zero in 2050. This measure 
should contribute to holding the further warming of the earth. 
 
Offshore 
This sector consists of two sub-sectors: offshore oil and gas and offshore wind parks. 
Combined these sub-sectors had a total production value of EUR 9,079 million in 2016 (EUR 
5,805 million directly); offshore is the 2
nd
 largest maritime sector in the Netherlands in terms 
of total production value. The value added accumulated to EUR 3,959 million in the same 
year (EUR 2,485 million directly). The offshore sector employed 54,344 persons (27,554 
directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). App. 1% of the total gross value added and employment for 
offshore wind parks in the EU in 2014 can be attributed to the Netherlands (COGEA, 2017). 
Considering gas production, the Netherlands is the second largest producer after the UK, with 
a share of 25.23% in the EU
8
 (JRC, 2015). 
 
SDG14 
Offshore oil & gas activities cause a number of pressures during the different life cycle 
phases such as exploration, drilling, installation, production, transport of workers and 
decommissioning. Regarding SDG 14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, on the most 
relevant pressures is pollution as a consequence of the discharge of production water during 
the production phase (Tamis et al., 2011). In 2012 the risk-based approach of OSPAR was 
adopted. This approach prioritises mitigating measures regarding the components in the 
discharged water giving the highest environmental risks. The authorities
9
 in the Netherlands 
have introduced guidelines for the implementation of this approach (WUR, 2016b). Regarding 
SDG 14.3, the oil & gas industry is involved in storing CO2 in empty gas fields of the North 
Sea. The K12-B project was the first of its kind in the world. This gas field is located app. 150 
km northwest of Amsterdam, producing natural gas with a relatively high CO2 content. Until 
recently the CO2 was vented but now it is injected into the gas field. Between 2004 and 2015 
a total of 90 kT of CO2 was injected (K12-B, 2017). Considering SDG 14.a, research 
cooperation specifically occurs in interaction with OSPAR, NOGEPA and Wageningen Marine 
Research on thetheme of marine pollution. In case of the K12-B project, monitoring and 
research activities occur between GDF SUEZ E&P, CSIRO and TNO (Tamis et al., 2011; 
WUR, 2016b; K12-B, 2017). 
 
In the offshore wind sector the installation and production phase can cause pressures on the 
marine environment. Piling during the installation causes underwater sound. This pressure 
may have impacts on marine mammals, which is a relevant form of marine pollution under 
SDG 14.1. In the Netherlands the current mitigation measure forbids piling during specific 
times of the year (SDN, 2012). Other potential pressures consist of collision of birds with the 
blades. In the wind park of Egmond research has illustrated that 0.01% of the 5 million birds 
annually passing through the park was hit by a blade (Noordzeewind, 2012). Regarding SDG 
 
8
 Consistent employment figures per EU member state are currently not available for the oil & gas sector 
9
 Staatstoezicht op de Mijnen and Rijkswaterstaat 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
19 of 103 
 
14.a, research institutes and industries are cooperating to find solutions to reduce the 
potential effects of underwater sound. An example of such an effort is the Blue Piling 
Technology, developed by Fistuca, Van Oord and TNO. This technology uses combustion to 
push a column of water inside a pole to generate a piling stroke. It does not only reduce 
underwater sound; it also reduces the costs of installation (RVO, 2012). Examples of 
research on the prevention of bird collisions could not be found. There are many studies 
pointing at the added value of offshore wind parks on marine biodiversity. Turbines offer hard 
substrate for organisms to settle, which literally forms the foundation of a new habitat. It has 
been proven that fish such as cod are attracted to these habitats (Lindeboom et al., 2011). In 
order to work achieve the ambitions of the Government of the Netherlands to achieve zero 
CO2 emissions in 2050, many more wind parks need to be installed. Some studies have been 
conducted to calculate cumulative impacts of multiple wind parks
10
; however studies on 
cumulative effects of a North Sea dominated by wind parks in 2050 do not exist. 
 
 
TKI Maritime 
Both the offshore oil and gas industry as well as the offshore wind industry are part of the Top 
Sector Energy. For the wind sector there is a TKI Offshore Wind and for the oil and gas 
industry there is a TKI Gas. However, within TKI Maritime, there are a three projects relating 
to the offshore sector; they are categorised under the theme of Mining at Sea. The DISCO 
JIP aims to improve a specific type of buoy in the vicinity of floating production platforms. The 
Wind Load JIP aims to align the outcomes of wind tunnels and modelling regarding wind 
flows around offshore structures. The Breakin JIP aims to gain insight in the modelling of the 
impacts of waves on offshore structures (TKI Maritiem, 2017). 
 
Green Deals 
Since the Green Deals focus on green economic growth, the focus is primarily on the 
transition from hydrocarbons towards other forms of energy. Currently the theme of energy 
contains 105 Green Deals; one of them relates to offshore wind. The Green Deal Netherlands 
Wind Energy Association aims to reduce the cost price of wind energy with 40%. It also aims 
to improve the international competitive position of the Netherlands (Green Deals, 2017c). 
 
Transition agenda 
Both the offshore oil and gas industry as the offshore wind industry are important for the first 
item on the transition agenda, focussing on the energy transition. In the new Government 
Agreement of 2017 storage of CO2 is of key importance; the industry is expected to store 18 
megatons by the year 2030. In the same document the offshore wind sector is further 
stimulated by allocating extra space for the sector. 
 
Maritime engineering 
Maritime engineering consists of activities such as dredging, coastal works, land reclamation 
and spatial planning. The sector plays a crucial role regarding land reclamations such as the 
extension of the harbour of Rotterdam (Tweede Maasvlakte). The sector is also important 
regarding the maintenance of the coastline via sand nourishments. The maritime engineering 
sector had a total production value of EUR 3,116 million in 2016 (EUR 1,647 million directly). 
The value added was EUR 1,111 million in the same year (EUR 541 million directly). The 
maritime engineering sector employed 13,859 persons (6,201 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). 
Due to a lack of data it is not known what the share of maritime engineering is in the 
Netherlands, compared to the EU. 
 
10
 https://www.buwa.nl/en/cumulative-effects-of-wind-farms-at-sea.html 
https://www.buwa.nl/en/cumulative-effects-of-wind-farms-at-sea.html
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
20 of 103 
 
SDG14 
Maritime engineering causes pressures such as de-oxygenation, nutrient/organic enrichment 
and underwater sound, which are relevant from the perspective of SDG14.1. In most projects 
the plume caused by a dredge hopper is reason of concern, causing changes in the siltation 
rate and potentially affecting vulnerable habitats and species. Therefore most Environmental 
Impact Assessments involve a specific maximum of mg/l in order to limit the size of the 
plume. The industry may use the so-called “green valve” to better control the flow of water 
and sand. From a perspective of SDG14.3 (acidification) gaseous emissions such as CO2, 
SOx, NOx and P.M. are relevant. The Performance Ladder is a measure to stimulate the 
sector to reduce its CO2 (and other gaseous emissions) footprint. However, all marine 
contractors already perform at the highest possible level on the Performance Ladder. 
Therefore there is no stimulus for the sector to further improve its performance. Considering 
SDG14.a (increasing scientific knowledge), the sector is mainly cooperating with research 
institutes and universities in the Building with Nature programme. 
 
TKI Maritime 
The maritime engineering sector is mostly affiliated with TKI Delta Technology. Within TKI 
Maritime the sector is also affiliated with the Mining at Sea theme. However, all projects within 
this theme relate to the energy sector. 
 
Green Deals 
The Green Deal “Het nieuwe draaien” aims to reduce CO2 emissions by 10% and NOx 
emissions by 15%. This is realised by a change in behaviour of drivers and operators, 
education, use of cleaner and better maintained equipment. This Green Deal has been 
signed by contractors such as BAM, Van Oord and Boskalis. The Green Deal “Grond- weg- 
en waterbouw” aims to achieve more sustainability in the tender procedures and projects. It 
consists of four transitions in behaviour: 1) seeing sustainability as added value instead of 
costs; 2) from reactive to proactive; 3) from unique to uniform; 4) from individualism to 
cooperation. 
 
Transition agenda 
The maritime engineering sector relates to the energy transition and to climate adaptation. As 
described above several measures are being taken to reduce CO2 emissions; however a new 
stimulus during sand nourishment projects is lacking. Considering climate adaptation the 
sector plays a crucial role in maintaining the coastline and ensuring its current position in the 
future. 
 
Harbours 
Harbours are the largest sector in the maritime domain in terms of production value and 
employment. The sector had a total production value of EUR 19,053 million in 2016 (EUR 
11,617 million directly). The value added was EUR 9.674 million in the same year (EUR 7,151 
million directly). The maritime engineering sector employed 80,431 persons (45,941directly) 
(Bossche et al., 2017). According to COGEA (2017),18% of the total value added and 10% of 
the employment in EU harbours can be attributed to the Netherlands. 
 
SDG14 
For SDG14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, the focus is amongst others on waste 
facilities in harbours. As mentioned in the shipping section, harmonised regulations and 
sufficient capacity are needed for waste treatment. For SDG14.3 on acidification, harbours 
focus mainly on SOx. The reason for this focus is that the areas of harbours often have SOx 
levels that exceed EU limits. The EU ship emissions directive (EU Directive 2005/33/EC) aims 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
21 of 103 
 
to reduce air pollution levels in harbours. It requires all anchored ships to use fuels with low 
sulphur content. Many harbours also invest in harbour electricity facilities, to prevent ships 
using their engines to generate electricity. To measure the environmental performance of 
ships, the Environmental Ship Index has been introduced. It rewards ships with lower 
gaseous emissions by reducing the harbour tariffs. Another index that is often used by 
harbours is the concept of EcoPorts, issuing certification for those harbours that meet certain 
environmental standards. For SDG14.a on the development of scientific knowledge, harbours 
increasingly cooperate with research institutes. The Port of Rotterdam for example has 
established Smart Port as a platform for knowledge sharing. Within Smart Port new research 
projects are initiated, e.g. to further reduce emissions in the harbour. 
 
TKI Maritime 
The harbour sector connects to the theme of effective infrastructure. One project is financed 
under this theme, called ROPES. The objective of this project is to provide insight into the 
effects of passing ships and to validate and develop methodologies for the evaluation of such 
effects on ships moored in a port in order to provide solutions for existing and new port and 
terminal developments (TKI Maritiem, 2017). 
 
Green Deals 
In cooperation with the shipping sector, harbours are cooperating in the Green Deal “Shipping 
Waste Chain”. The aim is to reduce further pollution of seas and oceans. The cooperating 
partners want to contribute to closing the plastic cycle via prevention, separation and 
recycling of plastic, improvement of supervision and harmonisation of waste collection in 
harbours (Green Deals, 2017b). Several harbours are involved in the Green Deal LNG Rijn & 
Wadden, focussing on the development LNG infrastructure and enabling conditions such as 
investments, regulations and awareness (Green Deals, 2017d). 
 
Transition agenda 
The harbour sector connects to the first transition on the agenda, being energy transition. The 
section above describes the current measures that are taken to initiate this transition. These 
measures include, amongst others, voluntary measures such as indices (EcoPorts, 
Environmental Ship Index & Green Deals) and obligatory measures such as the EU ship 
emissions directive. With the introduction of waste facilities for ships, harbours also connect 
to the circular economy theme on the agenda. 
 
 
Fisheries and aquaculture 
Fishery companies in the Netherlands are active around the globe. Outside the Dutch EEZ, 
pelagic freezer trawlers fish on pelagic species such as herring and mackerel. Inside the 
Dutch EEZ beam trawling on flatfish (plaice and sole) and shrimp (brown shrimp) are 
dominant. The dominant discourse in the sector is currently the discard ban. In 2019 all non-
targeted species have to be landed. The aim behind the “landing obligation” is to steer the 
sector towards innovations enabling more selective fishing practices (WUR, 2017a). 
Aquaculture consists of the cultivation of mussels (blue mussel) and oysters (Japanese oyster 
and Flat oyster) (Agrimatie, 2017). Economically the sector is the smallest in the maritime 
domain. In 2016 the total production value of fisheries and aquaculture was EUR 805 million 
(EUR 569 million directly). The total value added was EUR 433 million (EUR 351 million 
directly). The sector provided employment for 3,101 (2,251 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). 
On the EU level the Dutch fleet represents app. 4% of the total added value and 1% of the 
total employment (COGEA, 2017). 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
22 of 103 
 
SDG14 
For SDG14.1 on the reduction of marine pollution, there are several initiatives to reduce 
waste from fishery vessels. The most important initiative occurs under the Green Deals (see 
below). For SDG14.3 on the reduction of acidification, the most important developments in 
beam trawling have been the Sumwing and Pulsewing. The SumWing is a wing-shaped beam 
with a self-correcting function. A stabilizer causes the SumWing to remain in a horizontal 
position. The SumWing results in less abrasion and resistance. Therefore it reduces fuel 
consumption and reduces the environmental impact of beam trawling. This innovation results 
in fuel savings of 10-20%. The Pulsewing uses the Sumwing but replaces the tickler chains 
with cables releasing electric signals to the sea bed, through which the flatfish are 
“stimulated” and end up in the net. This technology saves another 10-20% of fuel. The 
development of the both technologies was funded by the Government of the Netherlands and 
the European Fishery Fund (EFF) (Taal and Klok, 2014). From a SDG14.a perspective, 
fishery organisations and research institutes cooperate to assess the environmental impacts 
of pulse fishing. Cooperation also takes place from the perspective of the discard ban to 
research more selective fishing methods. Another example is a cooperation project to find 
alternative materials for the nylon ropes that are used to protect beam trawling nets from 
abrasion
11
. Finding alternatives would reduce the release of nylon ropes from fisheries, 
reducing its contribution to marine litter. This project is partly financed by the Government of 
the Netherlands. 
 
TKI Maritime 
Fisheries and aquaculture are not represented in TKI Maritime; they are part of the Top 
Sector Agri & Food. 
 
Green Deals 
The Green Deal “Fishing for a clean sea” aims to reduce marine litter from fisheries. 
Measures consist of separating waste on board and facilities to process waste in the fishery 
harbours. This project also includes the collection of litter as a bycatch (Green Deals, 2017e). 
 
Transition agenda 
The efforts of the fishery industry mainly link to the energy transition, due to technology 
development such as the Sumwing and Pulsewing to reduce fuel consumption. 
 
Maritime support services 
Maritime support services are a very broad category consisting of public and private entities. 
This sector consists for example of HFO providers, salvage services, brokers, insurance 
companies, consultancies, research institutes, inspection services and customs. The total 
production value of this sector was EUR 4,695 million (EUR 1,904 million directly) in 2016. 
The total added value was EUR 1,626 million (EUR 1,179 million directly). Maritime support 
services provided employment for 18,119 persons (12,544 directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). 
Due to the variety of stakeholders in this sector it is not possible to make comparisons on an 
EU level. 
 
SDG14 
For SDG14.3 it is known that tug operators in harbours are increasingly focussing on 
reducing gaseous emissions, which are elaborated under the shipping and harbour sections. 
An example of research cooperation (SDG14.3 & SDG14.a) is the E3 Tug. This project 
 
11
 http://www.vispluisvrij.nl 
http://www.vispluisvrij.nl/
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
23 of 103 
 
designed a hybrid diesel-electric vessel able to realise a significant reductionin CO2 
emissions (WUR, 2017b). 
 
TKI Maritime 
Research institutes are the only stakeholder from the maritime support services involved in 
TKI Maritime. Research institutes are involved in all four themes with a total of 25 projects. 
Most of these projects are focussing on smart and safe shipping (13 in total). MARIN excels 
in involvement and is involved in most Joint Industry Projects. In Research institutes section 
3.23.2 more information is provided on the research institutes covering the maritime and 
marine domain. 
 
Green Deals 
Maritime support services are not visible in the Green Deals. This not only applies to the 
private entities within this sector; also the public entities are not visible. Only consultancies 
are involved in Green Deals. 
 
Transition agenda 
Maritime support services such as tugs and salvage services relate to the energy transition. 
As for the other entities it is not possible to categorise them within the five transitions of the 
Transition Agenda. 
 
Yacht construction/water sports 
This is also a broad sector, including yacht construction, marinas, reparations and 
maintenance, brokers, boat rental, sailing schools and sea fishing. Over the past decade the 
Netherlands has become a world leader in custom made super yachts. The total production 
value in 2016 was EUR 3,705 million (EUR 2,368 million directly). The total value added 
cumulated to EUR 1,847 million (EUR 1,142 million directly) in the same year. The sector 
employed 26,078 persons in 2016 (13,561 persons directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). It was not 
possible to compare this sector on an EU level. 
 
SDG14 
The only direct link with SDG14.3 (acidification) is the development of hybrid shipping. As the 
tonnage of private yachts is lower, hybrid solutions become more attractive. Diesel-electric 
and even electric yachts are being built recently; this reduces gaseous emissions. Marinas 
excelling in clean and safe facilities can receive a Blue Flag in the Netherlands, a voluntary 
certificate. Marinas taking further action for additional sustainability measures may receive a 
Green Pennon as a proof of their efforts (Maritiem Nederland, 2017). 
 
TKI Maritiem 
The yacht construction/water sports sector is not involved in TKI Maritiem. 
 
Green Deals 
The yacht construction/water sports sector is not involved in Green Deals. 
 
 
Transition agenda 
The yacht construction/water sports sector connects to the energy transition via the increased 
focus on electrical yachts. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
24 of 103 
 
Maritime suppliers 
Maritime suppliers deliver products and services to the maritime sector. Products consist for 
example of electro-technical and mechanical devices, coatings and the building of interiors for 
ships. Services may consist of engineering advice, maintenance, project management and 
safety analyses. The total production value of this sector was EUR 5,389 million (EUR 3,558 
million directly) in 2016. The total value added was EUR 2,764 million (EUR 1,676 million 
directly) in the same year. The maritime suppliers sector provided employment for 31,121 
persons (16,762 persons directly) (Bossche et al., 2017). Due to a lack of data it is not 
possible to compare this sector on an EU level. 
 
SDG14 
Mainly SDG14.3 is relevant here, specifically regarding the innovations in cleaner engines 
and emission control systems. Companies like Wärtsilä develop technology for on board LNG 
solutions as well as LNG infrastructure on land. Other relevant players are the constructors of 
scrubbers. A scrubber installation filters SOx from the emissions. 
 
TKI Maritiem 
The Maritime suppliers sector is not involved in TKI Maritiem. 
 
Green Deals 
The Maritime suppliers sector is not involved in Green Deals. 
 
Transition agenda 
As mentioned above, maritime suppliers deliver amongst others equipment for the reduction 
of gaseous emissions. Therefore they are linked to theme of energy transition in the 
Transition agenda. 
3.2 Research institutes 
In the Netherlands there are five large research institutes focussing partly or fully on marine 
and maritime research, including Wageningen Marine Research (WMR), Royal Netherlands 
Institute of Sea Research (NIOZ), Netherlands Organisation for Applied Natural Science 
Research (TNO), Deltares and the Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN)
12
. They 
provide a broad range of disciplines such as marine ecology, ecotoxicology, oceanography 
and marine governance. Products and services include desk studies, policy advice, surveys, 
monitoring and facilities such as mesocosms, test basins and laboratories. Most of these 
research institutes receive structural funding from one or more ministries with the aim to 
support policy makers. Another important source of funding comes from the European 
Commission via the seventh framework programme (FP7) and Horizon 2020. A list of marine 
and maritime research projects with EU funding is provided in Appendix B. Table 3.1 provides 
an overview of the turnover and employment at the institutes. Together the research institutes 
generated a turnover of app. EUR 205 million in 2016, with an estimated employment of app. 
1,400 persons. 
Table 3.1: overview of the turnover and employment at marine and maritime research institutes in the Netherlands 
Institute Turnover 
(million EUR) 
Employment Year Source 
WMR 23 160 (persons) 2016 WUR, 2016a 
NIOZ 31 244 (fte) 2016 NIOZ, 2016 
Deltares 109 742 (fte) 2016 Deltares, 2016 
MARIN 42 350 (persons) 2017 Marin, 2017 
 
12
 TNO also has a Maritime and Offshore unit. It was not possible to retrieve economic data from TNO. 
 
 
 
11200587-000-ZWS-0003, 2 February 2018, final 
 
 
Oceans Report 
 
25 of 103 
 
Over the years these research institutes have developed an impressive knowledge base on 
the issues covered in this report (see chapter 4). This knowledge base can be used by the 
Government of the Netherlands to become more visible on the (inter)national Oceans 
Agenda. These projects cover a broad range of topics relevant for policy makers, including 
the distribution of invasive species; a decision support tool and harmonised monitoring for 
reduce marine litter; guidelines to identify sources for marine litter; identification of new and 
unregulated chemical contaminants in seafood and disaster risk reduction measures. A full 
list of projects relevant for the Government is provided in Appendix G. 
 
In 2010 the TO2 Federation was initiated. All institutes mentioned above except for NIOZ are 
cooperating within TO2 to solve societal challenges and improve the innovation capacities of 
the private sector in the Netherlands. As such, TO2 connects knowledge and its application in 
the so-called golden triangle of private sector, government and research institutes. By doing 
so the Netherlands aims at a place in the top 5 most innovative knowledge economies of the 
world (TO2, 2017). 
 
The TO2 institutes have been evaluated by the Rathenau Institute in 2017. It concludes that 
the quality and the impact of the research institutes is good to very good and that the 
research is (highly) valued by the stakeholders. However, the vitality of the TO2 institutes is a 
concern. The excellent research base and core competencies required for applied research 
are no longer available. The main reason for this is the systematic decline in government 
funding for the TO2 institutes (Schaaf et al., 2017). 
3.3 Highlights 
 
As illustrated in Table 3.2, the total production value of all sectors analysed in this report is 
app. EUR 60,000 million with a total employment of app. 275,000 persons. The total maritime 
sector therefore accounts to app. 3.3% of the GDP of the Netherlands (Bossche et al., 2017).