Academic writing 2 - Rogelio Manríquez Cobián

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KINDS OF SENTENCES
Sentences are formed by one or more clauses and express a complete thought. The four basic kinds of sentences in English are:
(1) simple
(2) compound
(3) complex
(4) compound-complex
(1) Simple Sentences
A simple sentence is the same as an independent clause.
Subject 		Verb		(Complement)
The boy		ran.
He			is		a good singer.
A simple sentence can have one or more subjects. (When there is more than one subject, the subjects are called a compound subject.) A simple sentence can also have one or more verbs. (When there is more than one verb, the verbs are called a compound verb.)
							Examples:
one subject, one verb				Sally likes salad	
one subject, compound verb			Sally likes salad and eats it every day.
compound subject, one verb			Sally and Roy like salad.
compound subject, compound verb		Sally and Roy like salad and eat it every day.
Instructions I: Write a simple sentence with:
one subject and one verb.
one subject and two verbs.
two subjects and one verb
two subjects and two verbs.
(2) Compound Sentences
A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. There are several ways to make a compound sentence, including using (a) coordinators, 
(b) semicolons, and (c) semicolons with conjunctive adverbs.
(a) Coordinators
One way to join two independent clauses together is with a coordinator (also called coordinating conjunctions). There are seven coordinators in English: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, & so. You can remember these coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS (using the first letter of each of the coordinators). Coordinators are used in the following ways:
	CONJUNCTION
	FUNCTION
	EXAMPLE
	
FOR
	
Meaning “because”
	Japanese people live longer than most nationalities, for they eat healthy diets.
	
AND
	
To join two similar ideas
	They eat a lot of fish and vegetables, and they eat lightly.
	
NOR
	
To join two negative independent clauses
	They do not eat a lot of red meat, nor do they eat many dairy products. (note: notice that question word order is used after NOR.)
	
BUT
	
To join two contrasting ideas
	Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not the only factor.
	
OR
	To add an alternative possibility
	People should limit the amount of animal fat in their diet, or they risk getting heart disease.
	
YET
	To add an unexpected or surprising continuation
	Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, yet Japanese have a high rate of tobacco use.
	
SO
	Shows that the second idea is the logical consequence of the first
	Doctors say that stress is another factor, so try to avoid stress if you wish to live a long time.
Note that a comma is used BEFORE each coordinator.
Instructions II : Place the coordinators so, or, nor, for, and, but, & yet in the correct places below
	To add a reason
Japanese people live longer than most nationalities, _______ they eat healthy diets.
	To add a similar, equal idea
They eat a lot of fish and vegetables, _______ they eat lightly.	
	To join two negative independent clauses
They do not eat a lot of red meat, _______ do they eat many dairy products.	
	To add an opposite idea
Diet is one factor in how long people live, _______ it is not the only factor.	
	To add an alternative possibility
People should limit the amount of animal fat in their diet, ______ they risk getting heart disease.	
	To add an unexpected or surprising continuation
Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, _______ Japanese have a high rate of tobacco use.	
	To add an expected result
Doctors say that stress is another factor, _____ try to avoid stress if you wish to live a long time.	
A NOTE ON “BUT”
"Academic written texts were collected by Coxhead (2000) for the Academic Word List project.  In that collection of approximately 3,000,000 words, the word 'but' is used only 159 times.  Of these, 152 (96%) come at the BEGINNING of the sentence.  That is, while academic writers do not use the word 'but' very often, when they do select the word, they are almost certainly going to put it at the beginning of the sentence" (Reid, 2008).
A note on “FOR”
NOT used frequently, or ever. Very antiquated usage.
Note about “NOR” 
Notice that question word order is used after NOR. This can make using “nor” rather challenging. Since it not used very frequently, it may be best simply not to use this in your writing.
Instructions III: Write the correct coordinator in each blank space.
1. Alberto was cold, __________ he put on a coat.
2. Maria tried to read a novel in French, __________ it was too difficult.
4. To get from Vancouver to Victoria, you can fly, __________ you can ride the ferry.
5. I bought a bottle of wine, __________ we drank it together.
7. The waiter was not very nice, __________ the food was delicious.
8. I went to buy a Rolling Stones CD, __________ the shop didn't have it.
9. Anna needed some money, __________ she took a part-time job.
10. He was the tallest player on the team, __________ he was a terrible basketball player.
11. There's so much rain lately! Maybe it's because of global warming, __________ maybe it's just coincidence.
12. Julie has a guitar, __________ she plays it really well.
13. Bob can’t play the guitar, __________ can he play the drums.
14. The concert was cancelled, __________ we went to a nightclub instead.
15. He said he didn’t want to go, __________ he went anyway.
(b) Semicolons 
Another way to create compound sentences is with semicolons. This kind of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses are closely related in meaning. If they are not closely related, they should be written as two simple sentences, each ending with a period.
The car has a large engine; this power is used to accelerate quickly.
We are unable to meet as planned; we will meet next week.
Instructions IV : Place a semicolon in the correct place, below.
1. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes flexibility it also strengthens the mind and refreshes the spirit.
2. Motherhood causes some women to quit their jobs others continue working despite having young children to care for.
3. Three hundred guests attended his wedding two attended his funeral.
(c) Conjunctive Adverbs
The best way to join two independent clauses and show the logical connection between them is by using conjunctive adverbs. These provide some of the same logic as the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions seen above, but generally are more formal. For this reason, conjunctive adverbs are preferred in academic writing. (The use of FANBOYS can make your writing seem unsophisticated – even childish.)
Here is a list of some of the most common conjunctive adverbs (followed by coordinating and subordinating conjunctions that have similar meanings):
	CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB
	COORDINATOR
	SUBORDINATOR
	accordingly 	
	
	
	afterward
	
	after
	also 
	and
	
	as a result 
	for
	since, because
	besides 
	and
	
	consequently
	so
	
	earlier
	
	before
	for example 	
	
	
	hence 
	so
	since, because
	however 
	but, yet
	although, even though
	in addition
	and
	
	later 
	
	after
	moreover 
	and
	
	nevertheless
	yet
	even though, though, although
	otherwise 
	or
	
	still 
	yet
	
	then 
	
	after
	therefore 
	so
	
	thus
	so
	
	Here are some examples of how conjunctive adverbs are used:
	To add a similar, equal idea
	also
besides
furthermore
in addition
moreover	
	Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; also / besides / furthermore / in addition / moreover, they prepare students to transfer to a four-year college or university.
	To add an unexpected or surprising continuation
	however
nevertheless
nonetheless
still	
	The cost of attending a community college is low; however / nevertheless / nonetheless / still, many students need financial aid.	
	To add a complete contrast
	on the other hand
in contrast	
	Tuition at a community college is low; on the otherhand / in contrast, tuition at a private school is high.	
	To give an alternative possibility
	otherwise	
	Students must take final exams; otherwise, they won’t pass.
	To add an expected result
	accordingly
as a result
consequently
hence
therefore
thus	
	Native and non-native English speakers have different needs; accordingly / as a result / consequently / hence / therefore / thus, most schools provide separate English classes for each group.	
	To add an example
	for example
for instance	
	Most colleges now have a writing requirement for graduation; for example / for instance, students at my college must pass a writing test before they can register for their final semester.	
The rule for using conjunctive adverbs is simple: when a conjunctive adverb joins two independent clauses, place a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it:
	Independent clause;
	accordingly,
	independent clause.
	
	also,
	
	
	as a result,
	
	
	for example,
	
	
	still,
	
	
	therefore,
	
	
	etc.
	
Here are two examples:
	Independent clause;
	conjunctive adverb,
	independent clause.
	Fifteen men quickly cleared the accident from the road;
	consequently,
	the highways was open within an hour.
	Dogs make good pets;
	however,
	elephants do not.
(3) Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause). The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinator such as although, while or because or a relative pronoun such as who or which.
Examples:
When I saw what you had done, I was happy.
Independent clause: 		I was happy.
Dependent clause: 		When I saw what you had done
It makes me happy that you love me.
Independent clause: 		It makes me happy.
Dependent clause: 		that you love me
Instructions V: Analyze the following sentences. (Some of these are a bit tricky.) Mark the independent clauses (underlined them) and also the dependent clauses (circle them).
1. Please tell me where the post office is.
2. Engineers, who have an aptitude for mechanics, must also be artistic and imaginative.
3. Even though students declare a major now, they can change it later.
4. Economists are concerned that the rate of inflation will double if the government does not act.
(4) Compound-Complex Sentences
You should practice simple sentences, compound sentences, and complex sentences until you feel comfortable with these sentence types and can begin to write them with accuracy. However, you should be aware that there is one more type of sentence: compound-complex. Exercises are provided below for those students who may want extra practice with more difficult sentence types.
A compound-complex sentence has two independent clauses, and one (or more) dependent clauses. Or, said another way, it is a compound sentence in which at least one complex sentence is joined with another sentence using a coordinator, a semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb.
The following are some examples:
 Note: independent clauses are in bold, dependent clauses are underlined.
1. The first part is a complex sentence; it is added to an independent clause using the conjunctive adverb “however”, forming a compound sentence:
I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to work immediately.
2. The first part is a complex sentence; it is added to an independent clause using the coordinator “but”, forming a compound sentence:
After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel, but I had to go to work immediately.
3. Here, two complex sentences are joined by the coordinator “but” to form a compound sentence:
I wanted to travel after I graduated from college, but I had to go to work immediately because I had to support my family.